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Lalla EA, Konstantinidis M, Lymer E, Gilmour CM, Freemantle J, Such P, Cote K, Groemer G, Martinez-Frias J, Cloutis EA, Daly MG. Combined Spectroscopic Analysis of Terrestrial Analogs from a Simulated Astronaut Mission Using the Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) Raman Sensor: Implications for Mars. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2021; 75:1093-1113. [PMID: 33988039 DOI: 10.1177/00037028211016892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
One of the primary objectives of planetary exploration is the search for signs of life (past, present, or future). Formulating an understanding of the geochemical processes on planetary bodies may allow us to define the precursors for biological processes, thus providing insight into the evolution of past life on Earth and other planets, and perhaps a projection into future biological processes. Several techniques have emerged for detecting biomarker signals on an atomic or molecular level, including laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), Raman spectroscopy, laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) spectroscopy, and attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR FT-IR) spectroscopy, each of which addresses complementary aspects of the elemental composition, mineralogy, and organic characterization of a sample. However, given the technical challenges inherent to planetary exploration, having a sound understanding of the data provided from these technologies, and how the inferred insights may be used synergistically is critical for mission success. In this work, we present an in-depth characterization of a set of samples collected during a 28-day Mars analog mission conducted by the Austrian Space Forum in the Dhofar region of Oman. The samples were obtained under high-fidelity spaceflight conditions and by considering the geological context of the test site. The specimens were analyzed using the LIBS-Raman sensor, a prototype instrument for future exploration of Mars. We present the elemental quantification of the samples obtained from LIBS using a previously developed linear mixture model and validated using scanning electron microscopy energy dispersive spectroscopy. Moreover, we provide a full mineral characterization obtained using ultraviolet Raman spectroscopy and LIF, which was verified through ATR FT-IR. Lastly, we present possible discrimination of organics in the samples using LIF and time-resolved LIF. Each of these methods yields accurate results, with low errors in their predictive capabilities of LIBS (median relative error ranging from 4.5% to 16.2%), and degree of richness in subsequent inferences to geochemical and potential biochemical processes of the samples. The existence of such methods of inference and our ability to understand the limitations thereof is crucial for future planetary missions, not only to Mars and Moon but also for future exoplanetary exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel A Lalla
- Centre for Research in Earth and Space Science (CRESS), York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Menalaos Konstantinidis
- Centre for Research in Earth and Space Science (CRESS), York University, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Lymer
- Centre for Research in Earth and Space Science (CRESS), York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Cosette M Gilmour
- Centre for Research in Earth and Space Science (CRESS), York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - James Freemantle
- Centre for Research in Earth and Space Science (CRESS), York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Pamela Such
- Centre for Research in Earth and Space Science (CRESS), York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Kristen Cote
- Department of Physics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | | | - Jesus Martinez-Frias
- Dinamica Terrestre y Observacion de la Tierra, Instituto de Geociencias, Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid, Spain
| | - Edward A Cloutis
- Department of Geography, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Michael G Daly
- Centre for Research in Earth and Space Science (CRESS), York University, Toronto, Canada
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2
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Horsfall JPO, Trivedi D, Smith NT, Martin PA, Coffey P, Tournier S, Banford A, Li L, Whitehead D, Lang A, Law GTW. A new analysis workflow for discrimination of nuclear grade graphite using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY 2019; 199-200:45-57. [PMID: 30685638 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2019.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Stand-off, in-situ, laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) offers a rapid, safe, and cost-effective method for discrimination of radioactive waste materials arising during the operation of nuclear plants and from decommissioning activities. Characterisation of waste materials is a critical activity in understanding the nature of the waste, ensuring hazardous material is managed safely and that waste can be segregated for reuse, recycle or sentenced for appropriate disposal. Characterisation of materials, often in hostile environments, requires the ability to remotely differentiate between materials in terms of their chemical composition and radioactivity. This proposition was tested using a case study on nuclear grade graphite. Graphite has been used extensively as a moderator material in many nuclear reactors. Internationally, over 250,000 tons of various nuclear-grade graphite, and graphite-bearing, materials exist. These are a major issue for nuclear decommissioning and radioactive waste management, due to the long half-lives of the associated 14C and 36Cl isotopes. LIBS offers a method for discrimination of nuclear grade graphites and other carbon and non-carbon-bearing wastes. This paper describes the development of a workflow method, including LIBS measurement analysis, for the discrimination of pre-irradiated nuclear 'Pile Grade A' (PGA) graphite moderator rod and domestic lumpwood charcoal, which act as surrogates for nuclear grade graphite and other carbon-bearing wastes. A new analysis workflow comprising the examination of spectral characteristics, multivariate analysis and molecular isotopic spectroscopy is proposed to enable rapid segregation of graphite from a heterogeneous waste stream. Enhanced characterisation techniques have the potential to significantly reduce the cost of decommissioning large parts of legacy nuclear generation plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P O Horsfall
- National Nuclear Laboratory, 5(th) Floor, Chadwick House, Warrington Road, Birchwood Park, Warrington, WA3 6AE, United Kingdom; School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Divyesh Trivedi
- National Nuclear Laboratory, 5(th) Floor, Chadwick House, Warrington Road, Birchwood Park, Warrington, WA3 6AE, United Kingdom; School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Nick T Smith
- National Nuclear Laboratory, 5(th) Floor, Chadwick House, Warrington Road, Birchwood Park, Warrington, WA3 6AE, United Kingdom; School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom; School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom; Centre for Innovative Nuclear Decommissioning (CINDe), National Nuclear Laboratory, Workington, Cumbria, CA14 3YQ, United Kingdom.
| | - Philip A Martin
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Coffey
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Stella Tournier
- Centre for Innovative Nuclear Decommissioning (CINDe), National Nuclear Laboratory, Workington, Cumbria, CA14 3YQ, United Kingdom; School of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony Banford
- National Nuclear Laboratory, 5(th) Floor, Chadwick House, Warrington Road, Birchwood Park, Warrington, WA3 6AE, United Kingdom; School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom; Centre for Innovative Nuclear Decommissioning (CINDe), National Nuclear Laboratory, Workington, Cumbria, CA14 3YQ, United Kingdom
| | - Lin Li
- School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - David Whitehead
- School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Lang
- Centre for Radiochemistry Research, School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth T W Law
- Centre for Radiochemistry Research, School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, United Kingdom
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Clegg SM, Wiens R, Misra AK, Sharma SK, Lambert J, Bender S, Newell R, Nowak-Lovato K, Smrekar S, Dyar MD, Maurice S. Planetary geochemical investigations using Raman and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2014; 68:925-936. [PMID: 25226246 DOI: 10.1366/13-07386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
An integrated Raman spectroscopy and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) instrument is a valuable geoanalytical tool for future planetary missions to Mars, Venus, and elsewhere. The ChemCam instrument operating on the Mars Curiosity rover includes a remote LIBS instrument. An integrated Raman-LIBS spectrometer (RLS) based on the ChemCam architecture could be used as a reconnaissance tool for other contact instruments as well as a primary science instrument capable of quantitative mineralogical and geochemical analyses. Replacing one of the ChemCam spectrometers with a miniature transmission spectrometer enables a Raman spectroscopy mineralogical analysis to be performed, complementing the LIBS chemical analysis while retaining an overall architecture resembling ChemCam. A prototype transmission spectrometer was used to record Raman spectra under both Martian and Venus conditions. Two different high-pressure and high-temperature cells were used to collect the Raman and LIBS spectra to simulate surface conditions on Venus. The resulting LIBS spectra were used to generate a limited partial least squares Venus calibration model for the major elements. These experiments demonstrate the utility and feasibility of a combined RLS instrument.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel M Clegg
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545 USA
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5
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Hahn DW, Omenetto N. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), part II: review of instrumental and methodological approaches to material analysis and applications to different fields. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2012; 66:347-419. [PMID: 22449322 DOI: 10.1366/11-06574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 344] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The first part of this two-part review focused on the fundamental and diagnostics aspects of laser-induced plasmas, only touching briefly upon concepts such as sensitivity and detection limits and largely omitting any discussion of the vast panorama of the practical applications of the technique. Clearly a true LIBS community has emerged, which promises to quicken the pace of LIBS developments, applications, and implementations. With this second part, a more applied flavor is taken, and its intended goal is summarizing the current state-of-the-art of analytical LIBS, providing a contemporary snapshot of LIBS applications, and highlighting new directions in laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, such as novel approaches, instrumental developments, and advanced use of chemometric tools. More specifically, we discuss instrumental and analytical approaches (e.g., double- and multi-pulse LIBS to improve the sensitivity), calibration-free approaches, hyphenated approaches in which techniques such as Raman and fluorescence are coupled with LIBS to increase sensitivity and information power, resonantly enhanced LIBS approaches, signal processing and optimization (e.g., signal-to-noise analysis), and finally applications. An attempt is made to provide an updated view of the role played by LIBS in the various fields, with emphasis on applications considered to be unique. We finally try to assess where LIBS is going as an analytical field, where in our opinion it should go, and what should still be done for consolidating the technique as a mature method of chemical analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Hahn
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
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Lasue J, Wiens RC, Stepinski TF, Forni O, Clegg SM, Maurice S. Nonlinear mapping technique for data visualization and clustering assessment of LIBS data: application to ChemCam data. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 400:3247-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-4747-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2010] [Revised: 01/28/2011] [Accepted: 01/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Effect of atmospheric conditions on LIBS spectra. SENSORS 2010; 10:4907-25. [PMID: 22399914 PMCID: PMC3292154 DOI: 10.3390/s100504907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2010] [Revised: 05/04/2010] [Accepted: 05/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is typically performed at ambient Earth atmospheric conditions. However, interest in LIBS in other atmospheric conditions has increased in recent years, especially for use in space exploration (e.g., Mars and Lunar) or to improve resolution for isotopic signatures. This review focuses on what has been reported about the performance of LIBS in reduced pressure environments as well as in various gases other than air.
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8
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Raman spectroscopic analysis of minerals and organic molecules of relevance to astrobiology. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 397:215-221. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-3362-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2009] [Revised: 11/30/2009] [Accepted: 11/30/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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9
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Bol'shakov AA, Ganeev AA, Nemets VM. Prospects in analytical atomic spectrometry. RUSSIAN CHEMICAL REVIEWS 2007. [DOI: 10.1070/rc2006v075n04abeh001174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Thompson JR, Wiens RC, Barefield JE, Vaniman DT, Newsom HE, Clegg SM. Remote laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy analyses of Dar al Gani 476 and Zagami Martian meteorites. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/2005je002578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Scaffidi J, Pearman W, Carter JC, Angel SM. Observations in collinear femtosecond-nanosecond dual-pulse laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2006; 60:65-71. [PMID: 16454914 DOI: 10.1366/000370206775382857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In the work reported herein, we have combined a short-lived femtosecond laser-induced plasma (LIP) and a longer-lived nanosecond LIP in a collinear pulse configuration to examine the source(s) of atomic emission and signal-to-noise enhancement in dual-pulse laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). Initial studies indicate that the primary source of dual-pulse LIBS enhancement in the collinear configuration may in large part be a matter of pulse focus; focusing on the sample surface, for example, yields atomic emission enhancements whose lifetime correlates reasonably well with the femtosecond LIP emissive lifetime, suggesting that plasma-plasma coupling may play an important role at that pulse focus. At a second "optimal" focal position above the sample surface, alternatively, atomic emission and signal-to-noise enhancements correlate quite well with the nitrogen and oxygen atomic emission reductions previously seen following use of a femtosecond air spark and a nanosecond ablative pulse in the orthogonal dual-pulse configuration, suggesting that pressure or number density reductions due to femtosecond LIP formation in air may be significant at that pulse focus.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Scaffidi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
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12
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Wiens RC, Sharma SK, Thompson J, Misra A, Lucey PG. Joint analyses by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and Raman spectroscopy at stand-off distances. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2005; 61:2324-34. [PMID: 16029853 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2005.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2004] [Accepted: 02/04/2005] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Raman spectroscopy and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) of solid samples have both been shown to be feasible with sample-to-instrument distances of many meters. The two techniques are very useful together, as the combination of elemental compositions from LIBS and molecular vibrational information from Raman spectroscopy strongly complement each other. Remote LIBS and Raman spectroscopy spectra were taken together on a number of mineral samples including sulfates, carbonates and silicates at a distance of 8.3 m. The complementary nature of these spectra is highlighted and discussed. A factor of approximately 20 difference in intensity was observed between the brightest Raman line of calcite, at optimal laser power, and the brighter Ca I LIBS emission line measured with 55 mJ/pulse laser power. LIBS and Raman spectroscopy have several obstacles to devising a single instrument capable of both techniques. These include the differing spectral ranges and required detection sensitivity. The current state of technology in these areas is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger C Wiens
- Space Science and Applications, Mail Stop D-466, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87544, USA.
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Arp ZA, Cremers DA, Wiens RC, Wayne DM, Sallé B, Maurice S. Analysis of water ice and water ice/soil mixtures using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy: application to Mars polar exploration. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2004; 58:897-909. [PMID: 15324495 DOI: 10.1366/0003702041655377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Recently, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) has been developed for the elemental analysis of geological samples for application to space exploration. There is also interest in using the technique for the analysis of water ice and ice/dust mixtures located at the Mars polar regions. The application is a compact instrument for a lander or rover to the Martian poles to interrogate stratified layers of ice and dusts that contain a record of past geologic history, believed to date back several million years. Here we present results of a study of the use of LIBS for the analysis of water ice and ice/dust mixtures in situ and at short stand-off distances (< 6.5 m) using experimental parameters appropriate for a compact instrument. Characteristics of LIBS spectra of water ice, ice/soil mixtures, element detection limits, and the ability to ablate through ice samples to monitor subsurface dust deposits are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zane A Arp
- Group-NMT-15, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
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Stoker CR, Roush TL, Arvidson RE, Bresina JL, Bualat MG, Edwards LJ, Flueckiger LJ, Washington RM, Nguyen LA, Thomas H, Wright AR. Two dogs, new tricks: A two-rover mission simulation using K9 and FIDO at Black Rock Summit, Nevada. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1029/2000je001490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carol R. Stoker
- Space Science Division, NASA Ames Research Center; Moffett Field California USA
| | - Ted L. Roush
- Space Science Division, NASA Ames Research Center; Moffett Field California USA
| | - Raymond E. Arvidson
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences; Washington University; St. Louis Missouri USA
| | - John L. Bresina
- Computational Sciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center; Moffett Field California USA
| | - Maria G. Bualat
- Computational Sciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center; Moffett Field California USA
| | - Laurence J. Edwards
- Computational Sciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center; Moffett Field California USA
| | - Lorenzo J. Flueckiger
- Computational Sciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center; Moffett Field California USA
| | - Richard M. Washington
- Computational Sciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center; Moffett Field California USA
| | - Laurent A. Nguyen
- Computational Sciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center; Moffett Field California USA
| | - Hans Thomas
- Computational Sciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center; Moffett Field California USA
| | - Anne R. Wright
- Computational Sciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center; Moffett Field California USA
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Jolliff B, Knoll A, Morris RV, Moersch J, McSween H, Gilmore M, Arvidson R, Greeley R, Herkenhoff K, Squyres S. Remotely sensed geology from lander-based to orbital perspectives: Results of FIDO rover May 2000 field tests. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1029/2000je001470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B. Jolliff
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences; Washington University; St. Louis Missouri USA
| | - A. Knoll
- Botanical Museum; Harvard University; Cambridge Massachusetts USA
| | | | - J. Moersch
- Department of Geological Sciences; University of Tennessee; Knoxville Tennessee USA
| | - H. McSween
- Department of Geological Sciences; University of Tennessee; Knoxville Tennessee USA
| | - M. Gilmore
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory; Pasadena California USA
| | - R. Arvidson
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences; Washington University; St. Louis Missouri USA
| | - R. Greeley
- Department of Geology; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona USA
| | | | - S. Squyres
- Center for Radiophysics and Space Research; Cornell University; Ithaca New York USA
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16
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Arvidson RE, Squyres SW, Baumgartner ET, Schenker PS, Niebur CS, Larsen KW, SeelosIV FP, Snider NO, Jolliff BL. FIDO prototype Mars rover field trials, Black Rock Summit, Nevada, as test of the ability of robotic mobility systems to conduct field science. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1029/2000je001464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R. E. Arvidson
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences; Washington University; St. Louis Missouri USA
| | - S. W. Squyres
- Department of Astronomy; Cornell University; Ithaca New York USA
| | - E. T. Baumgartner
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory; California Institute of Technology; Pasadena California USA
| | - P. S. Schenker
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory; California Institute of Technology; Pasadena California USA
| | - C. S. Niebur
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences; Washington University; St. Louis Missouri USA
| | - K. W. Larsen
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences; Washington University; St. Louis Missouri USA
| | - F. P. SeelosIV
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences; Washington University; St. Louis Missouri USA
| | - N. O. Snider
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences; Washington University; St. Louis Missouri USA
| | - B. L. Jolliff
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences; Washington University; St. Louis Missouri USA
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