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Moschos V, Christensen C, Mouton M, Fiddler MN, Isolabella T, Mazzei F, Massabò D, Turpin BJ, Bililign S, Surratt JD. Quantifying the Light-Absorption Properties and Molecular Composition of Brown Carbon Aerosol from Sub-Saharan African Biomass Combustion. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:4268-4280. [PMID: 38393751 PMCID: PMC10919089 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c09378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Sub-Saharan Africa is a hotspot for biomass burning (BB)-derived carbonaceous aerosols, including light-absorbing organic (brown) carbon (BrC). However, the chemically complex nature of BrC in BB aerosols from this region is not fully understood. We generated smoke in a chamber through smoldering combustion of common sub-Saharan African biomass fuels (hardwoods, cow dung, savanna grass, and leaves). We quantified aethalometer-based, real-time light-absorption properties of BrC-containing organic-rich BB aerosols, accounting for variations in wavelength, fuel type, relative humidity, and photochemical aging conditions. In filter samples collected from the chamber and Botswana in the winter, we identified 182 BrC species, classified into lignin pyrolysis products, nitroaromatics, coumarins, stilbenes, and flavonoids. Using an extensive set of standards, we determined species-specific mass and emission factors. Our analysis revealed a linear relationship between the combined BrC species contribution to chamber-measured BB aerosol mass (0.4-14%) and the mass-absorption cross-section at 370 nm (0.2-2.2 m2 g-1). Hierarchical clustering resolved key molecular-level components from the BrC matrix, with photochemically aged emissions from leaf and cow-dung burning showing BrC fingerprints similar to those found in Botswana aerosols. These quantitative findings could potentially help refine climate model predictions, aid in source apportionment, and inform effective air quality management policies for human health and the global climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaios Moschos
- Department
of Physics, College of Science and Technology, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, North Carolina 27411, United States
- Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global
Public Health, The University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina 27516, United States
| | - Cade Christensen
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Megan Mouton
- Department
of Applied Sciences and Technology, College of Science and Technology, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, North Carolina 27411, United States
| | - Marc N. Fiddler
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Science and Technology, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, North Carolina 27411, United States
| | - Tommaso Isolabella
- Department
of Physics, University of Genoa, 16146 Genoa, Italy
- National
Institute of Nuclear Physics (INFN), 16146 Genoa, Italy
| | - Federico Mazzei
- Department
of Physics, University of Genoa, 16146 Genoa, Italy
| | - Dario Massabò
- Department
of Physics, University of Genoa, 16146 Genoa, Italy
| | - Barbara J. Turpin
- Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global
Public Health, The University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina 27516, United States
| | - Solomon Bililign
- Department
of Physics, College of Science and Technology, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, North Carolina 27411, United States
- Department
of Applied Sciences and Technology, College of Science and Technology, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, North Carolina 27411, United States
| | - Jason D. Surratt
- Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global
Public Health, The University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina 27516, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
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Sattar Y, Rashid M, Ramli M, Sabariah B. Black carbon and elemental concentration of ambient particulate matter in Makassar Indonesia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/18/1/012099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Pan XL, Kanaya Y, Wang ZF, Taketani F, Tanimoto H, Irie H, Takashima H, Inomata S. Emission ratio of carbonaceous aerosols observed near crop residual burning sources in a rural area of the Yangtze River Delta Region, China. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2012jd018357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Cheng Y, Lee SC, Ho KF, Fung K. Positive sampling artifacts in particulate organic carbon measurements in roadside environment. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2010; 168:645-656. [PMID: 19760087 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-009-1140-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2009] [Accepted: 08/17/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The positive artifacts in particulate organic carbon measurements in a roadside environment were characterized using two filters in tandem. The experiments were performed for PM(1.0), PM(2.5), and PM(10) at 24-h interval using a URG sampler, followed by organic carbon (OC)/elemental carbon (EC) analysis by the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments thermal/optical reflectance carbon analysis protocol. The OC concentrations, derived from the quartz filter behind a front quartz filter, were quite similar for PM(1.0), PM(2.5), and PM(10), ranging from 0.6 to 2.7 microg C m(-3) for PM(1.0), from 0.7 to 2.7 microg C m(-3) for PM(2.5), and from 1.1 to 2.7 microg C m(-3) for PM(10). They were respectively approximately 2.8%, approximately 2.4%, and approximately 1.6% of the particulate mass. The most abundant species on the backup quartz filters were OC2 (250 degrees C) and OC3 (450 degrees C), accounting for approximately 80% of measured organic carbon on the backup quartz filters. It indicates the filter artifacts are mainly composed of adsorbed semi-volatile organics (below the analysis temperature of 450 degrees C) including gaseous and particulate phase; the loading of artifacts depends on the nature of vapor and its interaction with filter substrate, rather than particle sizes. The uncorrected OC/EC ratios on the front quartz filters were approximately 10% higher than the corrected OC/EC ratios by positive organic artifacts in winter, and it is approximately 20% higher in summer. Another finding is that the separation distance of the front and backup filters influence the level of artifacts assessed by the backup filter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Cheng
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology, School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.
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5
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Watson JG, Chow JC, Chen LWA, Frank NH. Methods to assess carbonaceous aerosol sampling artifacts for IMPROVE and other long-term networks. JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (1995) 2009; 59:898-911. [PMID: 19728484 DOI: 10.3155/1047-3289.59.8.898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) adsorb to quartz fiber filters during fine and coarse particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10, respectively) sampling for thermal/optical carbon analysis that measures organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC). Particulate SVOCs can evaporate after collection, with a small portion adsorbed within the filter. Adsorbed organic gases are measured as particulate OC, so passive field blanks, backup filters, prefilter organic denuders, and regression methods have been applied to compensate for positive OC artifacts in several long-term chemical speciation networks. Average backup filter OC levels from the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) network were approximately 19% higher than field blank values. This difference is within the standard deviation of the average and likely results from low SVOC concentrations in the rural to remote environments of most IMPROVE sites. Backup filters from an urban (Fort Meade, MD) site showed twice the OC levels of field blanks. Sectioning backup filters from top to bottom showed nonuniform OC densities within the filter, contrary to the assumption that VOCs and SVOCs on a backup filter equal those on the front filter. This nonuniformity may be partially explained by evaporation and readsorption of vapors in different parts of the front and backup quartz fiber filter owing to temperature, relative humidity, and ambient concentration changes throughout a 24-hr sample duration. OC-PM2.5 regression analysis and organic denuder approaches demonstrate negative sampling artifact from both Teflon membrane and quartz fiber filters.
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Affiliation(s)
- John G Watson
- Division of Atmospheric Sciences, Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV 89512, USA.
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Magi BI, Ginoux P, Ming Y, Ramaswamy V. Evaluation of tropical and extratropical Southern Hemisphere African aerosol properties simulated by a climate model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jd011128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Hidy GM. Surface-level fine particle mass concentrations: from hemispheric distributions to megacity sources. JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (1995) 2009; 59:770-789. [PMID: 19645262 DOI: 10.3155/1047-3289.59.7.770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Since 1990, basic knowledge of the "chemical climate" of fine particles, has greatly improved from Junge's compilation from the 1960s. A worldwide baseline distribution of fine particle concentrations on a synoptic scale of approximately 1000 km can be estimated at least qualitatively from measurements. A geographical distribution of fine particle characteristics is deduced from a synthesis of a variety of disparate data collected at ground level on all continents, especially in the northern hemisphere. On the average, the regional mass concentrations range from 1 to 80 microg/m3, with the highest concentrations in regions of high population density and industrialization. Fine particles by mass on a continental and hemispheric spatial scale are generally dominated by non-sea salt sulfate (0.2 to approximately 20 microg/m3, or approximately 25%) and organic carbon (0.2-> 10 microg/m3, or approximately 25%), with lesser contributions of ammonium, nitrate, elemental carbon, and elements found in sea salt or soil dust. The crustal and trace metal elements contribute a varied amount to fine particle mass depending on location, with a larger contribution in marine conditions or during certain events such as dust storms or volcanic disturbances. The average distribution of mass concentration and major components depends on the proximity to areal aggregations of sources, most of which are continental in origin, with contributions from sea salt emissions in the marine environment. The highest concentrations generally are within or near very large population and industrial centers, especially in Asia, including parts of China and India, as well as North America and Europe. Natural sources of blowing dust, sea salt, and wildfires contribute to large, intermittent spatial-scale particle loadings beyond these ranges. A sampling of 10 megacities illustrates a range of characteristic particle composition, dependent on local and regional sources. Long-range transport of pollution from spatially aggregated sources over hundreds of kilometers creates persistent regional- and continental-scale gradients of mass concentration, sulfate, and carbon species especially in the northern hemisphere. Data are sparse in the southern hemisphere, especially beyond 45 degrees S, but are generally very low in mass concentrations.
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Alvarado MJ, Prinn RG. Formation of ozone and growth of aerosols in young smoke plumes from biomass burning: 1. Lagrangian parcel studies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jd011144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Bein KJ, Zhao Y, Johnston MV, Wexler AS. Interactions between boreal wildfire and urban emissions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2007jd008910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Magi BI, Fu Q, Redemann J, Schmid B. Using aircraft measurements to estimate the magnitude and uncertainty of the shortwave direct radiative forcing of southern African biomass burning aerosol. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2007jd009258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brian I. Magi
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences; University of Washington; Seattle Washington USA
| | - Qiang Fu
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences; University of Washington; Seattle Washington USA
| | - Jens Redemann
- Bay Area Environmental Research Institute; Sonoma California USA
| | - Beat Schmid
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory; Richland Washington USA
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Legrand M, Puxbaum H. Summary of the CARBOSOL project: Present and retrospective state of organic versus inorganic aerosol over Europe. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd008271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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12
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Magi BI, Fu Q, Redemann J. A methodology to retrieve self-consistent aerosol optical properties using common aircraft measurements. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd008312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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13
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Sullivan AP, Peltier RE, Brock CA, de Gouw JA, Holloway JS, Warneke C, Wollny AG, Weber RJ. Airborne measurements of carbonaceous aerosol soluble in water over northeastern United States: Method development and an investigation into water-soluble organic carbon sources. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd007072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. P. Sullivan
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences; Georgia Institute of Technology; Atlanta Georgia USA
| | - R. E. Peltier
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences; Georgia Institute of Technology; Atlanta Georgia USA
| | - C. A. Brock
- Chemical Sciences Division; Earth System Research Laboratory, NOAA; Boulder Colorado USA
| | - J. A. de Gouw
- Chemical Sciences Division; Earth System Research Laboratory, NOAA; Boulder Colorado USA
| | - J. S. Holloway
- Chemical Sciences Division; Earth System Research Laboratory, NOAA; Boulder Colorado USA
| | - C. Warneke
- Chemical Sciences Division; Earth System Research Laboratory, NOAA; Boulder Colorado USA
| | - A. G. Wollny
- Chemical Sciences Division; Earth System Research Laboratory, NOAA; Boulder Colorado USA
| | - R. J. Weber
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences; Georgia Institute of Technology; Atlanta Georgia USA
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14
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Novakov T, Menon S, Kirchstetter TW, Koch D, Hansen JE. Aerosol organic carbon to black carbon ratios: Analysis of published data and implications for climate forcing. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1029/2005jd005977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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15
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Kirchstetter TW, Novakov T, Hobbs PV. Evidence that the spectral dependence of light absorption by aerosols is affected by organic carbon. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1029/2004jd004999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1004] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W. Kirchstetter
- Environmental Energy Technologies Division; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley California USA
| | - T. Novakov
- Environmental Energy Technologies Division; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley California USA
| | - Peter V. Hobbs
- Atmospheric Sciences Department; University of Washington; Seattle Washington USA
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Hudson PK, Murphy DM, Cziczo DJ, Thomson DS, de Gouw JA, Warneke C, Holloway J, Jost HJ, Hübler G. Biomass-burning particle measurements: Characteristic composition and chemical processing. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1029/2003jd004398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Hans-Jürg Jost
- Bay Area Environmental Research Institute; Sonoma California USA
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Pósfai M, Gelencsér A, Simonics R, Arató K, Li J, Hobbs PV, Buseck PR. Atmospheric tar balls: Particles from biomass and biofuel burning. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004. [DOI: 10.1029/2003jd004169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 255] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mihály Pósfai
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences; University of Veszprém; Veszprém Hungary
| | - András Gelencsér
- Air Chemistry Group; Hungarian Academy of Sciences; Veszprém Hungary
| | - Renáta Simonics
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences; University of Veszprém; Veszprém Hungary
| | - Krisztina Arató
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences; University of Veszprém; Veszprém Hungary
| | - Jia Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona USA
| | - Peter V. Hobbs
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences; University of Washington; Seattle Washington USA
| | - Peter R. Buseck
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona USA
- Department of Geological Sciences; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona USA
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Swap RJ, Annegarn HJ, Suttles JT, King MD, Platnick S, Privette JL, Scholes RJ. Africa burning: A thematic analysis of the Southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI 2000). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2003jd003747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert J. Swap
- Department of Environmental Sciences; University of Virginia; Charlottesville Virginia USA
- Atmosphere and Energy Research Group; University of the Witwatersrand; Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Harold J. Annegarn
- Atmosphere and Energy Research Group; University of the Witwatersrand; Johannesburg South Africa
| | | | - Michael D. King
- Earth Sciences Directorate; NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; Greenbelt Maryland USA
| | - Steven Platnick
- Laboratory for Atmospheres; NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; Maryland USA
| | - Jeffrey L. Privette
- Laboratory for Terrestrial Physics; NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; Greenbelt Maryland USA
| | - Robert J. Scholes
- Division of Water, Environment and Forestry Technology; CSIR; Pretoria South Africa
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Sinha P, Hobbs PV, Yokelson RJ, Bertschi IT, Blake DR, Simpson IJ, Gao S, Kirchstetter TW, Novakov T. Emissions of trace gases and particles from savanna fires in southern Africa. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2002jd002325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Parikhit Sinha
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences; University of Washington; Seattle Washington USA
| | - Peter V. Hobbs
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences; University of Washington; Seattle Washington USA
| | | | - Isaac T. Bertschi
- Department of Chemistry; University of Montana; Missoula Montana USA
| | - Donald R. Blake
- Department of Chemistry; University of California; Irvine California USA
| | - Isobel J. Simpson
- Department of Chemistry; University of California; Irvine California USA
| | - Song Gao
- Department of Chemistry; University of Washington; Seattle Washington USA
| | | | - Tica Novakov
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley California USA
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Hobbs PV, Sinha P, Yokelson RJ, Christian TJ, Blake DR, Gao S, Kirchstetter TW, Novakov T, Pilewskie P. Evolution of gases and particles from a savanna fire in South Africa. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2002jd002352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter V. Hobbs
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences; University of Washington; Seattle Washington USA
| | - Parikhit Sinha
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences; University of Washington; Seattle Washington USA
| | | | - Ted J. Christian
- Department of Chemistry; University of Montana; Missoula Montana USA
| | - Donald R. Blake
- Department of Chemistry; University of California; Irvine California USA
| | - Song Gao
- Department of Chemistry; University of Washington; Seattle Washington USA
| | | | - Tica Novakov
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley California USA
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Li J, Pósfai M, Hobbs PV, Buseck PR. Individual aerosol particles from biomass burning in southern Africa: 2, Compositions and aging of inorganic particles. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2002jd002310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 317] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jia Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona USA
| | - Mihály Pósfai
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences; University of Veszprém; Veszprém Hungary
| | - Peter V. Hobbs
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences; University of Washington; Seattle Washington USA
| | - Peter R. Buseck
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona USA
- Department of Geological Sciences; Arizona State University; Tempe Arizona USA
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23
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Sinha P. Distributions of trace gases and aerosols during the dry biomass burning season in southern Africa. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2003jd003691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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