2600-years of stratospheric volcanism through sulfate isotopes

High quality records of stratospheric volcanic eruptions, required to model past climate variability, have been constructed by identifying synchronous (bipolar) volcanic sulfate horizons in Greenland and Antarctic ice cores. Here we present a new 2600-year chronology of stratospheric volcanic events using an independent approach that relies on isotopic signatures (Δ³³S and in some cases Δ¹⁷O) of ice core sulfate from five closely-located ice cores from Dome C, Antarctica. The Dome C stratospheric reconstruction provides independent validation of prior reconstructions. The isotopic approach documents several high-latitude stratospheric events that are not bipolar, but climatically-relevant, and diverges deeper in the record revealing tropospheric signals for some previously assigned bipolar events. Our record also displays a collapse of the Δ¹⁷O anomaly of sulfate for the largest volcanic eruptions, showing a further change in atmospheric chemistry induced by large emissions. Thus, the refinement added by considering both isotopic and bipolar correlation methods provides additional levels of insight for climate-volcano connections and improves ice core volcanic reconstructions.

The estimation of volcanic contribution to climate variability requires identification of global-scale eruptions. Here the authors present a new 2600-year chronology of stratospheric volcanic events that relies on isotopic signature of ice core sulfate, that improves ice core volcanic reconstruction.

Five-S-isotope evidence of two distinct mass-independent sulfur isotope effects and implications for the modern and Archean atmospheres

Anomalous sulfur isotopic compositions preserved in sedimentary rocks older than ∼2.5 billion years have been widely interpreted as the products of UV photolysis of sulfur dioxide in an anoxic atmosphere and used to track the history of primitive Earth and evolution of early life. In this study, we present strong observational evidence that there is an additional process that produces similar anomalous sulfur isotope signatures. This previously unknown origin not only offers a tool for quantifying the present-day atmospheric sulfur budget and evaluating its influences on climate and public health but also implies that anomalous sulfur isotopic compositions in some of the oldest rocks on Earth might have been produced in a way different from that previously thought.

The signature of mass-independent fractionation of quadruple sulfur stable isotopes (S-MIF) in Archean rocks, ice cores, and Martian meteorites provides a unique probe of the oxygen and sulfur cycles in the terrestrial and Martian paleoatmospheres. Its mechanistic origin, however, contains some uncertainties. Even for the modern atmosphere, the primary mechanism responsible for the S-MIF observed in nearly all tropospheric sulfates has not been identified. Here we present high-sensitivity measurements of a fifth sulfur isotope, stratospherically produced radiosulfur, along with all four stable sulfur isotopes in the same sulfate aerosols and a suite of chemical species to define sources and mechanisms on a field observational basis. The five-sulfur-isotope and multiple chemical species analysis approach provides strong evidence that S-MIF signatures in tropospheric sulfates are concomitantly affected by two distinct processes: an altitude-dependent positive ³³S anomaly, likely linked to stratospheric SO₂ photolysis, and a negative ³⁶S anomaly mainly associated with combustion. Our quadruple stable sulfur isotopic measurements in varying coal samples (formed in the Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic periods) and in SO₂ emitted from combustion display normal ³³S and ³⁶S, indicating that the observed negative ³⁶S anomalies originate from a previously unknown S-MIF mechanism during combustion (likely recombination reactions) instead of coal itself. The basic chemical physics of S-MIF in both photolytic and thermal reactions and their interplay, which were not explored together in the past, may be another ingredient for providing deeper understanding of the evolution of Earth’s atmosphere and life’s origin.

A simple and reliable anion-exchange resin method for sulfate extraction and purification suitable for multiple O- and S-isotope measurements

RATIONALE

The O- and S-isotope compositions of sulfates can be used as key tracers of the fate and sink of sulfate in both terrestrial and extra-terrestrial environments. However, their application remains limited in those geological systems where sulfate occurs in low concentrations. Here we present a simple and reliable method to extract, purify and concentrate sulfate from natural samples. The method allows us to take into account the separation of nitrate, which is known to be an issue in O-isotope analysis.

METHODS

The separation and concentration of sulfate from other anions in any aqueous solution are performed within a few hours via anion-exchange resin. The possible O- (δ¹⁸ O and Δ¹⁷ O) and S- (δ³⁴ S, Δ³³ S and Δ³⁶ S) isotope exchanges, fractionations and/or contaminations are for the first time monitored during the whole procedure using initial O- and S-mass-dependent and mass-independent sulfate solutions.

RESULTS

After elution in HCl, pure sulfate is fully retrieved and precipitated into BaSO₄ , which is suitable for O- and S-isotopic measurements using established techniques. The analysis of retrieved barite presents no variation within 2σ uncertainties: ±0.5‰ and ±0.1‰ in O- (δ¹⁸ O, Δ¹⁷ O) and ±0.2‰, ±0.02‰ and ±0.09‰ in S- (δ³⁴ S, Δ³³ S and Δ³⁶ S) isotope ratios, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that the resin method for sulfate extraction and purification, in addition to being cheap, simple and quick, is applicable for the measurements of all O- and S-isotopic ratios in sulfates (including the Δ¹⁷ O, Δ³³ S and Δ³⁶ S values). Therefore, this method can be easily used for a high range of natural samples in which sulfate occurs in low concentration including aerosols, ice cores, sediments, volcanic deposits, (paleo)soils and rainwater, and thus it can be a key to our understanding of the sulfur cycle on Earth. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Multiple sulfur-isotope signatures in Archean sulfates and their implications for the chemistry and dynamics of the early atmosphere

Sulfur isotopic anomalies (∆(33)S and ∆(36)S) have been used to trace the redox evolution of the Precambrian atmosphere and to document the photochemistry and transport properties of the modern atmosphere. Recently, it was shown that modern sulfate aerosols formed in an oxidizing atmosphere can display important isotopic anomalies, thus questioning the significance of Archean sulfate deposits. Here, we performed in situ 4S-isotope measurements of 3.2- and 3.5-billion-year (Ga)-old sulfates. This in situ approach allows us to investigate the diversity of Archean sulfate texture and mineralogy with unprecedented resolution and from then on to deconvolute the ocean and atmosphere Archean sulfur cycle. A striking feature of our data is a bimodal distribution of δ(34)S values at ∼+5‰ and +9‰, which is matched by modern sulfate aerosols. The peak at +5‰ represents barite of different ages and host-rock lithology showing a wide range of ∆(33)S between -1.77‰ and +0.24‰. These barites are interpreted as primary volcanic emissions formed by SO2 photochemical processes with variable contribution of carbonyl sulfide (OCS) shielding in an evolving volcanic plume. The δ(34)S peak at +9‰ is associated with non-(33)S-anomalous barites displaying negative ∆(36)S values, which are best interpreted as volcanic sulfate aerosols formed from OCS photolysis. Our findings confirm the occurrence of a volcanic photochemical pathway specific to the early reduced atmosphere but identify variability within the Archean sulfate isotope record that suggests persistence throughout Earth history of photochemical reactions characteristic of the present-day stratosphere.

SO2 photoexcitation mechanism links mass-independent sulfur isotopic fractionation in cryospheric sulfate to climate impacting volcanism

Natural climate variation, such as that caused by volcanoes, is the basis for identifying anthropogenic climate change. However, knowledge of the history of volcanic activity is inadequate, particularly concerning the explosivity of specific events. Some material is deposited in ice cores, but the concentration of glacial sulfate does not distinguish between tropospheric and stratospheric eruptions. Stable sulfur isotope abundances contain additional information, and recent studies show a correlation between volcanic plumes that reach the stratosphere and mass-independent anomalies in sulfur isotopes in glacial sulfate. We describe a mechanism, photoexcitation of SO2, that links the two, yielding a useful metric of the explosivity of historic volcanic events. A plume model of S(IV) to S(VI) conversion was constructed including photochemistry, entrainment of background air, and sulfate deposition. Isotopologue-specific photoexcitation rates were calculated based on the UV absorption cross-sections of (32)SO2, (33)SO2, (34)SO2, and (36)SO2 from 250 to 320 nm. The model shows that UV photoexcitation is enhanced with altitude, whereas mass-dependent oxidation, such as SO2 + OH, is suppressed by in situ plume chemistry, allowing the production and preservation of a mass-independent sulfur isotope anomaly in the sulfate product. The model accounts for the amplitude, phases, and time development of Δ(33)S/δ(34)S and Δ(36)S/Δ(33)S found in glacial samples. We are able to identify the process controlling mass-independent sulfur isotope anomalies in the modern atmosphere. This mechanism is the basis of identifying the magnitude of historic volcanic events.

Mass spectrometry of atmospheric aerosols--recent developments and applications. Part I: Off-line mass spectrometry techniques

Many of the significant advances in our understanding of atmospheric particles can be attributed to the application of mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry provides high sensitivity with a fast response time to probe chemically complex particles. This review focuses on recent developments and applications in the field of mass spectrometry of atmospheric aerosols. In Part I of this two-part review, we concentrate on off-line mass spectrometry techniques, which require sample collection on filters but can provide detailed molecular speciation. In particular, off-line mass spectrometry techniques utilizing tandem mass spectrometry experiments and high resolution mass analyzers provide improved insight into secondary organic aerosol formation and heterogeneous reaction pathways through detailed structural elucidation at the molecular level.

Volcanism and the atmosphere: the potential role of the atmosphere in unlocking the reactivity of volcanic emissions

Recent measurements of reactive trace gas species in volcanic plumes have offered intriguing hints at the chemistry occurring in the hot environment at volcanic vents. This has led to the recognition that volcanic vents should be regarded not only as passive sources of volcanic gases to the atmosphere, but also as 'reaction vessels' that unlock otherwise inert volcanic and atmospheric gas species. The atypical conditions created by the mixing of ambient atmosphere with the hot gases emitted from magma give rise to elevated concentrations of otherwise unexpected chemical compounds. Rapid cooling of this mixture allows these species to persist into the environment, with important consequences for gas plume chemistry and impacts. This paper discusses some examples of the implications of these high-temperature interactions in terms of nitrogen, halogen and sulphur chemistry, and their consequences in terms of the global fixed nitrogen budget, volcanically induced ozone destruction and particle fluxes to the atmosphere. Volcanically initiated atmospheric chemistry was likely to have been particularly important before biological (and latterly anthropogenic) processes started to dominate many geochemical cycles, with important consequences in terms of the evolution of the nitrogen cycle and the role of particles in modulating the Earth's climate.