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Kammer DS, McLaskey GC, Abercrombie RE, Ampuero JP, Cattania C, Cocco M, Dal Zilio L, Dresen G, Gabriel AA, Ke CY, Marone C, Selvadurai PA, Tinti E. Earthquake energy dissipation in a fracture mechanics framework. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4736. [PMID: 38830886 PMCID: PMC11148115 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47970-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Earthquakes are rupture-like processes that propagate along tectonic faults and cause seismic waves. The propagation speed and final area of the rupture, which determine an earthquake's potential impact, are directly related to the nature and quantity of the energy dissipation involved in the rupture process. Here, we present the challenges associated with defining and measuring the energy dissipation in laboratory and natural earthquakes across many scales. We discuss the importance and implications of distinguishing between energy dissipation that occurs close to and far behind the rupture tip, and we identify open scientific questions related to a consistent modeling framework for earthquake physics that extends beyond classical Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Kammer
- Institute for Building Materials, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Gregory C McLaskey
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | | | - Jean-Paul Ampuero
- Université Côte d'Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, IRD, CNRS, Géoazur, Valbonne, France
| | - Camilla Cattania
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Massimo Cocco
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy
| | - Luca Dal Zilio
- Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Georg Dresen
- Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Alice-Agnes Gabriel
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD, La Jolla, USA
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Chun-Yu Ke
- Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Chris Marone
- Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- La Sapienza Universitá di Roma, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Roma, Italia
| | | | - Elisa Tinti
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy
- La Sapienza Universitá di Roma, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Roma, Italia
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2
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Woo S, Han R, Oohashi K. Frictional melting mechanisms of rocks during earthquake fault slip. Sci Rep 2023; 13:12563. [PMID: 37532914 PMCID: PMC10397195 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-39752-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Rapid slip, at rates in the order of 1 m/s or more, may induce frictional melting in rocks during earthquakes. The short-lived melting has been thought to be a disequilibrium process, for decades. We conducted frictional melting experiments on acidic, basic, and ultrabasic silicate rocks at a slip rate of 1.3 m/s. The experiments and microstructural observations reveal that all minerals in the rocks are melted at temperatures below their known melting temperatures (Tm); e.g., quartz is melted at ~ 1000-1200 °C, not ~ 1720 °C, while olivine at ~ 1300 °C, rather than ~ 1700 °C. The low-temperature melting is incompatible with the conventional disequilibrium melting, and may be caused predominantly by grain size reduction and phase boundary reactions during the early and later stages of slip, respectively. The newly estimated Tm and the melting mechanisms should be considered for understanding the mechanics of earthquakes, landslides, and caldera collapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangwoo Woo
- Department of Geology and Research Institute of Natural Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, Republic of Korea
| | - Raehee Han
- Department of Geology and Research Institute of Natural Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, Republic of Korea.
| | - Kiyokazu Oohashi
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753-8512, Japan
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3
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Gomila R, Fondriest M, Jensen E, Spagnuolo E, Masoch S, Mitchell TM, Magnarini G, Bistacchi A, Mittempergher S, Faulkner D, Cembrano J, Di Toro G. Frictional Melting in Hydrothermal Fluid-Rich Faults: Field and Experimental Evidence From the Bolfín Fault Zone (Chile). GEOCHEMISTRY, GEOPHYSICS, GEOSYSTEMS : G(3) 2021; 22:e2021GC009743. [PMID: 34434077 PMCID: PMC8365670 DOI: 10.1029/2021gc009743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Tectonic pseudotachylytes are thought to be unique to certain water-deficient seismogenic environments and their presence is considered to be rare in the geological record. Here, we present field and experimental evidence that frictional melting can occur in hydrothermal fluid-rich faults hosted in the continental crust. Pseudotachylytes were found in the >40 km-long Bolfín Fault Zone of the Atacama Fault System, within two ca. 1 m-thick (ultra)cataclastic strands hosted in a damage-zone made of chlorite-epidote-rich hydrothermally altered tonalite. This alteration state indicates that hydrothermal fluids were active during the fault development. Pseudotachylytes, characterized by presenting amygdales, cut and are cut by chlorite-, epidote- and calcite-bearing veins. In turn, crosscutting relationship with the hydrothermal veins indicates pseudotachylytes were formed during this period of fluid activity. Rotary shear experiments conducted on bare surfaces of hydrothermally altered rocks at seismic slip velocities (3 m s-1) resulted in the production of vesiculated pseudotachylytes both at dry and water-pressurized conditions, with melt lubrication as the primary mechanism for fault dynamic weakening. The presented evidence challenges the common hypothesis that pseudotachylytes are limited to fluid-deficient environments, and gives insights into the ancient seismic activity of the system. Both field observations and experimental evidence, indicate that pseudotachylytes may easily be produced in hydrothermal environments, and could be a common co-seismic fault product. Consequently, melt lubrication could be considered one of the most efficient seismic dynamic weakening mechanisms in crystalline basement rocks of the continental crust.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Gomila
- Dipartimento di GeoscienzeUniversità degli Studi di PadovaPadovaItaly
| | - M. Fondriest
- Dipartimento di GeoscienzeUniversità degli Studi di PadovaPadovaItaly
- Institut des Sciences de la Terre (ISTerre)Université Grenoble AlpesGrenobleFrance
| | - E. Jensen
- Departamento Ingeniería y Ciencias GeológicasUniversidad Católica del NorteAntofagastaChile
| | - E. Spagnuolo
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e VulcanologiaRomeItaly
| | - S. Masoch
- Dipartimento di GeoscienzeUniversità degli Studi di PadovaPadovaItaly
| | | | - G. Magnarini
- UCL Earth SciencesUniversity College of LondonLondonUK
| | - A. Bistacchi
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell'Ambiente e della TerraUniversità di Milano‐BicoccaMilanoItaly
| | - S. Mittempergher
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e GeologicheUniversità di Modena e Reggio EmiliaModenaItaly
| | - D. Faulkner
- School of Environmental SciencesUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | - J. Cembrano
- Escuela de IngenieríaPontificia Universidad Católica de ChileSantiago de ChileChile
| | - G. Di Toro
- Dipartimento di GeoscienzeUniversità degli Studi di PadovaPadovaItaly
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e VulcanologiaRomeItaly
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4
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Pham ST, Tieu AK, Wan S, Hao J, Zhu H, Tran NV, Do PT. Intrinsic Effect of Alkali Concentration on Oxidation Reactivity and High-Temperature Lubricity of Silicate Melts between Rubbed Steel/Steel Contacts. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2020; 36:7850-7860. [PMID: 32551658 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c00895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigated oxidation reactivity and hot lubricity of a sodium silicate melt at different Na2O/SiO2 ratios under elevated temperature stimulation. Static oxidation prevention was achieved at 920 °C when the Na2O/SiO2 ratio reached 1:3 (trisilicate) and 1:2 (disilicate), but it started to deteriorate in the case of 1:1 (metasilicate). At a high concentration of sodium (metasilicate), a severe corrosion reaction between the melt and oxide took place that resulted in a composite coating on the steel substrate. This high-temperature reaction accelerated the formation of ionic charges from the steel base and promoted oxidation. However, friction and wear reduction is proportional to an increase in the sodium oxide fraction. Metasilicate (1:1) exhibited excellent lubricity under the hot frictional test at 920 °C compared to other lubricants. It was due to the formation of the sodium-saturated surfaces and an amorphous silica layer, which was associated with the high-temperature reactivity of sodium toward the oxide surface. In addition, the NaFeO2-Fe2O3 composite film, as the reaction product of individual sodium charge and oxide, plays a significant role in maintaining the tribofilm stability for metasilicate, which was not present for disilicate. This study advances the understanding of how sodium-containing compounds perform oxidation prevention and generate lubricity at hot rubbed surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang T Pham
- Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Anh Kiet Tieu
- Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Shanhong Wan
- Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Jingcheng Hao
- Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry & Key Laboratory of Special Aggregated Materials, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, P. R. China
| | - Hongtao Zhu
- Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Nam V Tran
- Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Phuong T Do
- Faculty of Chemistry, Hanoi University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam
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5
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Abstract
Fluids are pervasive in fault zones cutting the Earth's crust; however, the effect of fluid viscosity on fault mechanics is mainly conjectured by theoretical models. We present friction experiments performed on both dry and fluid-permeated silicate and carbonate bearing-rocks, at normal effective stresses up to 20 MPa, with a slip-rate ranging between 10 μm/s and 1 m/s. Four different fluid viscosities were tested. We show that both static and dynamic friction coefficients decrease with viscosity and that dynamic friction depends on the dimensionless Sommerfeld number (S) as predicted by the elastohydrodynamic-lubrication theory (EHD).Under favourable conditions (depending on the fluid viscosity (η), co-seismic slip-rate (V), fault geometry (L/H02) and earthquake nucleation depth (∝σeff)), EHD might be an effective weakening mechanism during natural and induced earthquakes. However, at seismic slip-rate, the slip weakening distance (Dc) increases markedly for a range of fluid viscosities expected in the Earth, potentially favouring slow-slip rather than rupture propagation for small to moderate earthquakes. The effect of fluid viscosity on fault mechanics is mainly conjectured by theoretical models. Here, the authors present experimental data from rock friction experiments, showing both static and dynamic friction coefficients to decrease with viscosity and dynamic friction to depend on the Sommerfeld number.
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6
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Giacomel P, Spagnuolo E, Nazzari M, Marzoli A, Passelegue F, Youbi N, Di Toro G. Frictional Instabilities and Carbonation of Basalts Triggered by Injection of Pressurized H 2O- and CO 2- Rich Fluids. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS 2018; 45:6032-6041. [PMID: 30147198 PMCID: PMC6099243 DOI: 10.1029/2018gl078082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Revised: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The safe application of geological carbon storage depends also on the seismic hazard associated with fluid injection. In this regard, we performed friction experiments using a rotary shear apparatus on precut basalts with variable degree of hydrothermal alteration by injecting distilled H2O, pure CO2, and H2O + CO2 fluid mixtures under temperature, fluid pressure, and stress conditions relevant for large-scale subsurface CO2 storage reservoirs. In all experiments, seismic slip was preceded by short-lived slip bursts. Seismic slip occurred at equivalent fluid pressures and normal stresses regardless of the fluid injected and degree of alteration of basalts. Injection of fluids caused also carbonation reactions and crystallization of new dolomite grains in the basalt-hosted faults sheared in H2O + CO2 fluid mixtures. Fast mineral carbonation in the experiments might be explained by shear heating during seismic slip, evidencing the high chemical reactivity of basalts to H2O + CO2 mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piercarlo Giacomel
- Dipartimento di GeoscienzeUniversità degli Studi di PadovaPaduaItaly
- Now at Dipartimento di Scienze della TerraSapienza Università di RomaRomeItaly
| | | | - Manuela Nazzari
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e VulcanologiaRomeItaly
- Dipartimento di Scienze della TerraSapienza Università di RomaRomeItaly
| | - Andrea Marzoli
- Dipartimento di GeoscienzeUniversità degli Studi di PadovaPaduaItaly
| | | | - Nasrrddine Youbi
- Geology Department, Faculty of Sciences‐SemlaliaCadi Ayyad UniversityMarrakechMorocco
- Instituto Dom Luiz, Faculdade de CiênciasUniversidade de LisboaLisbonPortugal
| | - Giulio Di Toro
- Dipartimento di GeoscienzeUniversità degli Studi di PadovaPaduaItaly
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e VulcanologiaRomeItaly
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7
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Nielsen S. From slow to fast faulting: recent challenges in earthquake fault mechanics. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2017; 375:rsta.2016.0016. [PMID: 28827428 PMCID: PMC5580450 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2016.0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Faults-thin zones of highly localized shear deformation in the Earth-accommodate strain on a momentous range of dimensions (millimetres to hundreds of kilometres for major plate boundaries) and of time intervals (from fractions of seconds during earthquake slip, to years of slow, aseismic slip and millions of years of intermittent activity). Traditionally, brittle faults have been distinguished from shear zones which deform by crystal plasticity (e.g. mylonites). However such brittle/plastic distinction becomes blurred when considering (i) deep earthquakes that happen under conditions of pressure and temperature where minerals are clearly in the plastic deformation regime (a clue for seismologists over several decades) and (ii) the extreme dynamic stress drop occurring during seismic slip acceleration on faults, requiring efficient weakening mechanisms. High strain rates (more than 104 s-1) are accommodated within paper-thin layers (principal slip zone), where co-seismic frictional heating triggers non-brittle weakening mechanisms. In addition, (iii) pervasive off-fault damage is observed, introducing energy sinks which are not accounted for by traditional frictional models. These observations challenge our traditional understanding of friction (rate-and-state laws), anelastic deformation (creep and flow of crystalline materials) and the scientific consensus on fault operation.This article is part of the themed issue 'Faulting, friction and weakening: from slow to fast motion'.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Nielsen
- Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Durham DH1 5ED, UK
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8
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Lockner DA, Kilgore BD, Beeler NM, Moore DE. The Transition From Frictional Sliding to Shear Melting in Laboratory Stick-Slip Experiments. FAULT ZONE DYNAMIC PROCESSES 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/9781119156895.ch6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nicholas M. Beeler
- U.S. Geological Survey; Menlo Park California USA
- USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory; Vancouver Washington USA
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9
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Sammonds PR, Hatton DC, Feltham DL. Micromechanics of sea ice frictional slip from test basin scale experiments. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2017; 375:rsta.2015.0354. [PMID: 28025302 PMCID: PMC5179962 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2015.0354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We have conducted a series of high-resolution friction experiments on large floating saline ice floes in an environmental test basin. In these experiments, a central ice floe was pushed between two other floes, sliding along two interfacial faults. The frictional motion was predominantly stick-slip. Shear stresses, normal stresses, local strains and slip displacement were measured along the sliding faults, and acoustic emissions were monitored. High-resolution measurements during a single stick-slip cycle at several positions along the fault allowed us to identify two phases of frictional slip: a nucleation phase, where a nucleation zone begins to slip before the rest of the fault, and a propagation phase when the entire fault is slipping. This is slip-weakening behaviour. We have therefore characterized what we consider to be a key deformation mechanism in Arctic Ocean dynamics. In order to understand the micromechanics of sea ice friction, we have employed a theoretical constitutive relation (i.e. an equation for shear stress in terms of temperature, normal load, acceleration, velocity and slip displacement) derived from the physics of asperity-asperity contact and sliding (Hatton et al. 2009 Phil. Mag. 89, 2771-2799 (doi:10.1080/14786430903113769)). We find that our experimental data conform reasonably with this frictional law once slip weakening is introduced. We find that the constitutive relation follows Archard's law rather than Amontons' law, with [Formula: see text] (where τ is the shear stress and σn is the normal stress) and n = 26/27, with a fractal asperity distribution, where the frictional shear stress, τ = ffractal Tmlws, where ffractal is the fractal asperity height distribution, Tml is the shear strength for frictional melting and lubrication and ws is the slip weakening. We can therefore deduce that the interfacial faults failed in shear for these experimental conditions through processes of brittle failure of asperities in shear, and, at higher velocities, through frictional heating, localized surface melting and hydrodynamic lubrication.This article is part of the themed issue 'Microdynamics of ice'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter R Sammonds
- Rock and Ice Physics Laboratory, Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Daniel C Hatton
- Rock and Ice Physics Laboratory, Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Daniel L Feltham
- Centre for Polar Observation and Modelling, Department of Meteorology, University of Reading, PO Box 243, Reading RG6 6BB, UK
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10
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Spagnuolo E, Nielsen S, Violay M, Di Toro G. An empirically based steady state friction law and implications for fault stability. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS 2016; 43:3263-3271. [PMID: 27667875 PMCID: PMC5021208 DOI: 10.1002/2016gl067881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Empirically based rate-and-state friction laws (RSFLs) have been proposed to model the dependence of friction forces with slip and time. The relevance of the RSFL for earthquake mechanics is that few constitutive parameters define critical conditions for fault stability (i.e., critical stiffness and frictional fault behavior). However, the RSFLs were determined from experiments conducted at subseismic slip rates (V < 1 cm/s), and their extrapolation to earthquake deformation conditions (V > 0.1 m/s) remains questionable on the basis of the experimental evidence of (1) large dynamic weakening and (2) activation of particular fault lubrication processes at seismic slip rates. Here we propose a modified RSFL (MFL) based on the review of a large published and unpublished data set of rock friction experiments performed with different testing machines. The MFL, valid at steady state conditions from subseismic to seismic slip rates (0.1 µm/s < V < 3 m/s), describes the initiation of a substantial velocity weakening in the 1-20 cm/s range resulting in a critical stiffness increase that creates a peak of potential instability in that velocity regime. The MFL leads to a new definition of fault frictional stability with implications for slip event styles and relevance for models of seismic rupture nucleation, propagation, and arrest.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Spagnuolo
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e VulcanologiaRomeItaly
| | - S. Nielsen
- Department of Earth SciencesUniversity of DurhamDurhamUK
| | - M. Violay
- LEMR, ENAC, École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)LausanneSwitzerland
| | - G. Di Toro
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e VulcanologiaRomeItaly
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ManchesterManchesterUK
- Dipartimento di GeoscienzeUniversità degli Studi di PadovaPaduaItaly
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11
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Nielsen S, Spagnuolo E, Violay M, Smith S, Di Toro G, Bistacchi A. G: Fracture energy, friction and dissipation in earthquakes. JOURNAL OF SEISMOLOGY 2016; 20:1187-1205. [PMID: 28190968 PMCID: PMC5270889 DOI: 10.1007/s10950-016-9560-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Recent estimates of fracture energy G' in earthquakes show a power-law dependence with slip u which can be summarized as G' ∝ ua where a is a positive real slightly larger than one. For cracks with sliding friction, fracture energy can be equated to Gf : the post-failure integral of the dynamic weakening curve. If the dominant dissipative process in earthquakes is friction, G' and Gf should be comparable and show a similar scaling with slip. We test this hypothesis by analyzing experiments performed on various cohesive and non-cohesive rock types, under wet and dry conditions, with imposed deformation typical of seismic slip (normal stress of tens of MPa, target slip velocity > 1 m/s and fast accelerations ≈ 6.5 m/s2). The resulting fracture energy Gf is similar to the seismological estimates, with Gf and G' being comparable over most of the slip range. However, Gf appears to saturate after several meters of slip, while in most of the reported earthquake sequences, G' appears to increase further and surpasses Gf at large magnitudes. We analyze several possible causes of such discrepancy, in particular, additional off-fault damage in large natural earthquakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Nielsen
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vucanologia, Rome, Italy
- Durham University, Earth Sciences, Durham, UK
| | - E. Spagnuolo
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vucanologia, Rome, Italy
| | - M. Violay
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vucanologia, Rome, Italy
- EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - S. Smith
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vucanologia, Rome, Italy
- Department of Geology, University of Otago, Otago, New Zealand
| | - G. Di Toro
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vucanologia, Rome, Italy
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, Manchester University, Manchester, UK
- Dipartimento di Geoscienze Address, Università degli Studi di Padova Division, Padova, Italy
| | - A. Bistacchi
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vucanologia, Rome, Italy
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Universitá degli Studi di Milano Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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12
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Scale dependence of rock friction at high work rate. Nature 2016; 528:254-7. [PMID: 26659187 DOI: 10.1038/nature16138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Determination of the frictional properties of rocks is crucial for an understanding of earthquake mechanics, because most earthquakes are caused by frictional sliding along faults. Prior studies using rotary shear apparatus revealed a marked decrease in frictional strength, which can cause a large stress drop and strong shaking, with increasing slip rate and increasing work rate. (The mechanical work rate per unit area equals the product of the shear stress and the slip rate.) However, those important findings were obtained in experiments using rock specimens with dimensions of only several centimetres, which are much smaller than the dimensions of a natural fault (of the order of 1,000 metres). Here we use a large-scale biaxial friction apparatus with metre-sized rock specimens to investigate scale-dependent rock friction. The experiments show that rock friction in metre-sized rock specimens starts to decrease at a work rate that is one order of magnitude smaller than that in centimetre-sized rock specimens. Mechanical, visual and material observations suggest that slip-evolved stress heterogeneity on the fault accounts for the difference. On the basis of these observations, we propose that stress-concentrated areas exist in which frictional slip produces more wear materials (gouge) than in areas outside, resulting in further stress concentrations at these areas. Shear stress on the fault is primarily sustained by stress-concentrated areas that undergo a high work rate, so those areas should weaken rapidly and cause the macroscopic frictional strength to decrease abruptly. To verify this idea, we conducted numerical simulations assuming that local friction follows the frictional properties observed on centimetre-sized rock specimens. The simulations reproduced the macroscopic frictional properties observed on the metre-sized rock specimens. Given that localized stress concentrations commonly occur naturally, our results suggest that a natural fault may lose its strength faster than would be expected from the properties estimated from centimetre-sized rock samples.
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13
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Spagnuolo E, Plümper O, Violay M, Cavallo A, Di Toro G. Fast-moving dislocations trigger flash weakening in carbonate-bearing faults during earthquakes. Sci Rep 2015; 5:16112. [PMID: 26552964 PMCID: PMC4639853 DOI: 10.1038/srep16112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Rupture fronts can cause fault displacement, reaching speeds up to several ms−1 within a few milliseconds, at any distance away from the earthquake nucleation area. In the case of silicate-bearing rocks the abrupt slip acceleration results in melting at asperity contacts causing a large reduction in fault frictional strength (i.e., flash weakening). Flash weakening is also observed in experiments performed in carbonate-bearing rocks but evidence for melting is lacking. To unravel the micro-physical mechanisms associated with flash weakening in carbonates, experiments were conducted on pre-cut Carrara marble cylinders using a rotary shear apparatus at conditions relevant to earthquakes propagation. In the first 5 mm of slip the shear stress was reduced up to 30% and CO2 was released. Focused ion beam, scanning and transmission electron microscopy investigations of the slipping zones reveal the presence of calcite nanograins and amorphous carbon. We interpret the CO2 release, the formation of nanograins and amorphous carbon to be the result of a shock-like stress release associated with the migration of fast-moving dislocations. Amorphous carbon, given its low friction coefficient, is responsible for flash weakening and promotes the propagation of the seismic rupture in carbonate-bearing fault patches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Spagnuolo
- Sezione di Sismologia e Tettonofisica, Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, Roma, Italy
| | - Oliver Plümper
- Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Budapestlaan, 4 P.O. Box 80.021, 3584 CD Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Marie Violay
- EPFL, LEMR, Station 18, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Cavallo
- Sezione di Sismologia e Tettonofisica, Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, Roma, Italy
| | - Giulio Di Toro
- Dipartimento di Geoscienze, Università di Padova, Via G. Gradenigo 6, 35131 Padova, Italy.,School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, Manchester University, Oxford Street, M13 9PL Manchester, United Kingdom
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Gabriel AA, Ampuero JP, Dalguer LA, Mai PM. The transition of dynamic rupture styles in elastic media under velocity-weakening friction. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2012jb009468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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15
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‘Melt welt’ mechanism of extreme weakening of gabbro at seismic slip rates. Nature 2012; 488:638-41. [DOI: 10.1038/nature11370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2011] [Accepted: 06/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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16
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Boutareaud S, Hirose T, Andréani M, Pec M, Calugaru DG, Boullier AM, Doan ML. On the role of phyllosilicates on fault lubrication: Insight from micro- and nanostructural investigations on talc friction experiments. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2011jb009006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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17
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Niemeijer A, Di Toro G, Nielsen S, Di Felice F. Frictional melting of gabbro under extreme experimental conditions of normal stress, acceleration, and sliding velocity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jb008181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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18
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Di Toro G, Han R, Hirose T, De Paola N, Nielsen S, Mizoguchi K, Ferri F, Cocco M, Shimamoto T. Fault lubrication during earthquakes. Nature 2011; 471:494-8. [DOI: 10.1038/nature09838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 613] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2010] [Accepted: 01/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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19
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20
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Noda H, Lapusta N. Three-dimensional earthquake sequence simulations with evolving temperature and pore pressure due to shear heating: Effect of heterogeneous hydraulic diffusivity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jb007780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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21
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Nielsen S, Mosca P, Giberti G, Di Toro G, Hirose T, Shimamoto T. On the transient behavior of frictional melt during seismic slip. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jb007020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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22
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Di Toro G, Niemeijer A, Tripoli A, Nielsen S, Di Felice F, Scarlato P, Spada G, Alessandroni R, Romeo G, Di Stefano G, Smith S, Spagnuolo E, Mariano S. From field geology to earthquake simulation: a new state-of-the-art tool to investigate rock friction during the seismic cycle (SHIVA). RENDICONTI LINCEI 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s12210-010-0097-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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23
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Griffith WA, Nielsen S, Di Toro G, Smith SAF. Rough faults, distributed weakening, and off-fault deformation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jb006925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Malagnini L, Nielsen S, Mayeda K, Boschi E. Energy radiation from intermediate- to large-magnitude earthquakes: Implications for dynamic fault weakening. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jb006786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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25
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Han R, Hirose T, Shimamoto T. Strong velocity weakening and powder lubrication of simulated carbonate faults at seismic slip rates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jb006136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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26
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Slip-stick and the evolution of frictional strength. Nature 2010; 463:76-9. [DOI: 10.1038/nature08676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2009] [Accepted: 11/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Noda H, Dunham EM, Rice JR. Earthquake ruptures with thermal weakening and the operation of major faults at low overall stress levels. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jb006143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Del Gaudio P, Di Toro G, Han R, Hirose T, Nielsen S, Shimamoto T, Cavallo A. Frictional melting of peridotite and seismic slip. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jb005990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Brodsky EE, Rowe CD, Meneghini F, Moore JC. A geological fingerprint of low-viscosity fault fluids mobilized during an earthquake. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jb005633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E. E. Brodsky
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science; University of California; Santa Cruz California USA
| | - C. D. Rowe
- Department of Geological Sciences; University of Cape Town; Cape Town South Africa
| | - F. Meneghini
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science; University of California; Santa Cruz California USA
| | - J. C. Moore
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science; University of California; Santa Cruz California USA
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Marone C, Cocco M, Richardson E, Tinti E. Chapter 6 The Critical Slip Distance for Seismic and Aseismic Fault Zones of Finite Width. INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICS 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/s0074-6142(08)00006-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Rempel AW, Weaver SL. A model for flash weakening by asperity melting during high-speed earthquake slip. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jb005649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Brantut N, Schubnel A, Rouzaud JN, Brunet F, Shimamoto T. High-velocity frictional properties of a clay-bearing fault gouge and implications for earthquake mechanics. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2007jb005551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Wibberley CAJ, Yielding G, Di Toro G. Recent advances in the understanding of fault zone internal structure: a review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1144/sp299.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
AbstractIt is increasingly apparent that faults are typically not discrete planes but zones of deformed rock with a complex internal structure and three-dimensional geometry. In the last decade this has led to renewed interest in the consequences of this complexity for modelling the impact of fault zones on fluid flow and mechanical behaviour of the Earth's crust. A number of processes operate during the development of fault zones, both internally and in the surrounding host rock, which may encourage or inhibit continuing fault zone growth. The complexity of the evolution of a faulted system requires changes in the rheological properties of both the fault zone and the surrounding host rock volume, both of which impact on how the fault zone evolves with increasing displacement. Models of the permeability structure of fault zones emphasize the presence of two types of fault rock components: fractured conduits parallel to the fault and granular core zone barriers to flow. New data presented in this paper on porosity–permeability relationships of fault rocks during laboratory deformation tests support recently advancing concepts which have extended these models to show that poro-mechanical approaches (e.g., critical state soil mechanics, fracture dilatancy) may be applied to predict the fluid flow behaviour of complex fault zones during the active life of the fault. Predicting the three-dimensional heterogeneity of fault zone internal structure is important in the hydrocarbon industry for evaluating the retention capacity of faults in exploration contexts and the hydraulic behaviour in production contexts. Across-fault reservoir juxtaposition or non-juxtaposition, a key property in predicting retention or across-fault leakage, is strongly controlled by the three-dimensional complexity of the fault zone. Although algorithms such as shale gouge ratio greatly help predict capillary threshold pressures, quantification of the statistical variation in fault zone composition will allow estimations of uncertainty in fault retention capacity and hence prospect reserve estimations. Permeability structure in the fault zone is an important issue because bulk fluid flow rates through or along a fault zone are dependent on permeability variations, anisotropy and tortuosity of flow paths. A possible way forward is to compare numerical flow models using statistical variations of permeability in a complex fault zone in a given sandstone/shale context with field-scale estimates of fault zone permeability. Fault zone internal structure is equally important in understanding the seismogenic behaviour of faults. Both geometric and compositional complexities can control the nucleation, propagation and arrest of earthquakes. The presence and complex distribution of different fault zone materials of contrasting velocity-weakening and velocity-strengthening properties is an important factor in controlling earthquake nucleation and whether a fault slips seismogenically or creeps steadily, as illustrated by recent studies of the San Andreas Fault. A synthesis of laboratory experiments presented in this paper shows that fault zone materials which become stronger with increasing slip rate, typically then get weaker as slip rate continues to increase to seismogenic slip rates. Thus the probability that a nucleating rupture can propagate sufficiently to generate a large earthquake depends upon its success in propagating fast enough through these materials in order to give them the required velocity kick. This propagation success is hence controlled by the relative and absolute size distributions of velocity-weakening and velocity-strengthening rocks within the fault zone. Statistical characterisation of the distribution of such contrasting properties within complex fault zones may allow for better predictive models of rupture propagation in the future and provide an additional approach to earthquake size forecasting and early warnings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A. J. Wibberley
- Géosciences Azur, CNRS UMR6526, Université de Nice – Sophia Antipolis, 250 rue A. Einstein, 06560 Valbonne, France
- Present address: TOTAL, CSTJF, Av. Larribau, 64018 Pau, France (e-mail: )
| | - Graham Yielding
- Badley Geoscience Ltd, North Beck House, North Beck Lane, Hundleby, Lincolnshire PE23 5NB, UK
| | - Giulio Di Toro
- Università di Padova, Dipartimento di Geoscienze, Via Giotto 1, 35137 Padova, Italy
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, Roma, Italy
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