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Chen X, Ye C, Wang Y, Wu Z, Zhu T, Zhang F, Ding X, Shi Z, Zheng Z, Li W. Quantifying evolution of soot mixing state from transboundary transport of biomass burning emissions. iScience 2023; 26:108125. [PMID: 37876807 PMCID: PMC10590856 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass burning emit large amounts of soot particles into the troposphere. The condensation process is considered to influence the size (Dp) and mixing state of soot particles, which affects their solar absorption efficiency and lifetimes. However, quantifying aging evolution of soot remains hampered in the real world because of complicated sources and observation technologies. In the Himalayas, we isolated soot sourced from transboundary transport of biomass burning and revealed soot aging mechanisms through microscopic observations. Most of coated soot particles stabilized one soot core under Dp < 400 nm, but 34.8% of them contained multi-soot cores (nsoot ≥ 2) and nsoot increased 3-9 times with increasing Dp. We established the soot mixing models to quantify transformation from condensation- to coagulation-dominant regime at Dp ≈ 400 nm. Studies provide essential references for adopting mixing rules and quantifying the optical absorption of soot in atmospheric models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiyao Chen
- Key Laboratory of Geoscience Big Data and Deep Resource of Zhejiang Province, Department of Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Chunxiang Ye
- College Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yuanyuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Geoscience Big Data and Deep Resource of Zhejiang Province, Department of Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Zhijun Wu
- College Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Tong Zhu
- College Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Fan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Geoscience Big Data and Deep Resource of Zhejiang Province, Department of Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Xiaokun Ding
- Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Zongbo Shi
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Zhonghua Zheng
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Weijun Li
- Key Laboratory of Geoscience Big Data and Deep Resource of Zhejiang Province, Department of Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
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Li Y, Zhou Y, Guo W, Zhang X, Huang Y, He E, Li R, Yan B, Wang H, Mei F, Liu M, Zhu Z. Molecular Imaging Reveals Two Distinct Mixing States of PM 2.5 Particles Sampled in a Typical Beijing Winter Pollution Case. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:6273-6283. [PMID: 37022139 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Mixing states of aerosol particles are crucial for understanding the role of aerosols in influencing air quality and climate. However, a fundamental understanding of the complex mixing states is still lacking because most traditional analysis techniques only reveal bulk chemical and physical properties with limited surface and 3-D information. In this research, 3-D molecular imaging enabled by ToF-SIMS was used to elucidate the mixing states of PM2.5 samples obtained from a typical Beijing winter haze event. In light pollution cases, a thin organic layer covers separated inorganic particles; while in serious pollution cases, ion exchange and an organic-inorganic mixing surface on large-area particles were observed. The new results provide key 3-D molecular information of mixing states, which is highly potential for reducing uncertainty and bias in representing aerosol-cloud interactions in current Earth System Models and improving the understanding of aerosols on air quality and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Li
- Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science of the Ministry of Education, School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, 500 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 200241, China
- Division of Geochemistry, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, New York 10964, United States
| | - Yadong Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science of the Ministry of Education, School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, 500 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 200241, China
- Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Wenxiao Guo
- Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Xin Zhang
- Physical and Computational Sciences Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Ye Huang
- Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science of the Ministry of Education, School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, 500 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Erkai He
- Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science of the Ministry of Education, School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, 500 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Runkui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Beizhan Yan
- Division of Geochemistry, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, New York 10964, United States
| | - Hailong Wang
- Atmospheric Sciences and Global Change Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Fan Mei
- Atmospheric Sciences and Global Change Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Min Liu
- Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science of the Ministry of Education, School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, 500 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Zihua Zhu
- Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
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3
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Zhang F, Peng J, Chen L, Collins D, Li Y, Jiang S, Liu J, Zhang R. The effect of black carbon aging from NO 2 oxidation of SO 2 on its morphology, optical and hygroscopic properties. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 212:113238. [PMID: 35395235 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric aging of black carbon (BC) leads to changes in its physiochemical properties, exerting complex effects on environment and climate. In this study, we have conducted laboratory chamber experiments to investigate the effects of BC aging on its morphology, hygroscopicity and optical properties by exposing monodisperse fresh BC particles to ambient ubiquitous species of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and ammonia (NH3) in absence of UV light. We show a rapid aging from highly fractal to compacted aggregates for the monodisperse BC particles with an initial diameter of 150 nm, with decline in the dynamic shape factor (χ) from about 1.8 to nearly 1. The effective density of the monodisperse BC particles increases from ∼0.54 to 1.50 g cm-3 accordingly. The aging process leads to that the light scattering, absorption, and single scattering albedo of the monodisperse BC particles are strongly enhanced by factors of 7.0, 1.8 and 3.0 respectively. By comparing with the BC aging from other mechanisms, we reveal a critical role of the composition of the coating materials on BC in determining its light absorption enhancement. Moreover, due to strong water uptake capacity of the aged BC particles, the light absorption enhancement (Eabs) could be 40-60% higher at humid atmosphere compared with dry conditions. This BC aging process from NO2 oxidation of SO2 may occur commonly in polluted regions and thus considerably alter its effects on regional air quality and climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Zhang
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), 518055, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jianfei Peng
- Departments of Atmospheric Sciences and Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Lu Chen
- College of Global Change and Earth System Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
| | - Don Collins
- Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Yixin Li
- Departments of Atmospheric Sciences and Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Sihui Jiang
- College of Global Change and Earth System Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
| | - Jieyao Liu
- College of Global Change and Earth System Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
| | - Renyi Zhang
- Departments of Atmospheric Sciences and Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
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Abstract
Aerosol mixing state significantly affects concentrations of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), wet removal rates, thermodynamic properties, heterogeneous chemistry, and aerosol optical properties, with implications for human health and climate. Over the last two decades, significant research effort has gone into finding computationally-efficient methods for representing the most important aspects of aerosol mixing state in air pollution, weather prediction, and climate models. In this review, we summarize the interactions between mixing-state and aerosol hygroscopicity, optical properties, equilibrium thermodynamics and heterogeneous chemistry. We focus on the effects of simplified assumptions of aerosol mixing state on CCN concentrations, wet deposition, and aerosol absorption. We also summarize previous approaches for representing aerosol mixing state in atmospheric models, and we make recommendations regarding the representation of aerosol mixing state in future modelling studies.
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Exact Variance-Reduced Simulation of Lattice Continuous-Time Markov Chains with Applications in Reaction Networks. Bull Math Biol 2019; 81:3159-3184. [PMID: 30761456 DOI: 10.1007/s11538-019-00576-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
We propose an algorithm to reduce the variance of Monte Carlo simulation for the class of countable-state, continuous-time Markov chains, or lattice CTMCs. This broad class of systems includes all processes that can be represented using a random-time-change representation, in particular reaction networks. Numerical studies demonstrate order-of-magnitude reduction in MSE for Monte Carlo mean estimates using our approach for both linear and nonlinear systems. The algorithm works by simulating pairs of negatively correlated, identically distributed sample trajectories of the stochastic process and using them to produce variance-reduced, unbiased Monte Carlo estimates, effectively generalizing the method of antithetic variates into the domain of stochastic processes. We define a method to simulate anticorrelated, unit-rate Poisson process paths. We then show how these antithetic Poisson process pairs can be used as the input for random time-change representations of any lattice CTMC, in order to produce anticorrelated trajectories of the desired process. We present three numerical parameter studies. The first examines the algorithm's performance for the unit-rate Poisson process, and the next two demonstrate the effectiveness of the algorithm in simulating reaction network systems: a gene expression system with affine rate functions and an aerosol particle coagulation system with nonlinear rates. We also prove exact, analytical expressions for the time-resolved and integrated covariance between our antithetic Poisson processes for one technique.
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Chen C, Enekwizu OY, Fan X, Dobrzanski CD, Ivanova EV, Ma Y, Gor GY, Khalizov AF. Single Parameter for Predicting the Morphology of Atmospheric Black Carbon. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:14169-14179. [PMID: 30462499 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Black carbon (BC) from fuel combustion is an effective light absorber that contributes significantly to direct climate forcing. The forcing is altered when BC combines with other substances, which modify its mixing state and morphology, making the evaluation of its atmospheric lifetime and climate impact a challenge. To elucidate the associated mechanisms, we exposed BC aerosol to supersaturated vapors of different chemicals to form thin coatings and measured the coating mass required to induce the restructuring of BC aggregates. We found that studied chemicals fall into two distinct groups based on a single dimensionless parameter, χ, which depends on the diameter of BC monomer spheres and the coating material properties, including vapor supersaturation, molar volume, and surface tension. We show that when χ is small (low-volatility chemicals), the highly supersaturated vapor condenses uniformly over aggregates, including convex monomers and concave junctions in between monomers, but when χ is large (intermediate-volatility chemicals), junctions become preferred. The aggregates undergo prompt restructuring when condensation in the junctions dominates over condensation on monomer spheres. For a given monomer diameter, the coating distribution is mostly controlled by vapor supersaturation. The χ factor can be incorporated straightforwardly into atmospheric models to improve simulations of BC aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Chen
- College of Resources and Environment , Chengdu University of Information Technology , Chengdu 610225 , China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control , Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology , Nanjing 210044 , China
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
| | - Ogochukwu Y Enekwizu
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
| | - Xiaolong Fan
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control , Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology , Nanjing 210044 , China
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
| | - Christopher D Dobrzanski
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
| | - Ella V Ivanova
- Saint-Petersburg State University , 7-9 Universitetskaya nab. , Saint-Petersburg , Russian Federation 199034
| | - Yan Ma
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control , Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology , Nanjing 210044 , China
| | - Gennady Y Gor
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
| | - Alexei F Khalizov
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering , New Jersey Institute of Technology , Newark , New Jersey 07102 , United States
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7
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Ching J, Kajino M. Aerosol mixing state matters for particles deposition in human respiratory system. Sci Rep 2018; 8:8864. [PMID: 29891990 PMCID: PMC5995922 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27156-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Aerosol particles emitted from various human activities deteriorate air quality and are suggested to increase public health risk. Numerous studies have emphasized the relationship between the mass and/or number concentration of aerosols (or commonly known as particulate matter (PM)) in the atmosphere and the incidence of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, while very few have examined the deposition efficiency of inhaled particles in the respiratory tract. We present the first examination of particles deposition based on, detailed simulation of aerosol physico-chemical properties by a recently developed particle-resolved aerosol model and the mixing state dependent hygrosocpic growth and deposition computed at particle-level by deposition model. Furthermore, we elucidate the impact of mixing state on deposition efficiency by using a recently introduced aerosol mixing state index. We find that without considering mixing-state-dependent hygroscopic growth of particles leads to overestimation of deposition efficiency; whereas considering an average mixing state leads to underestimation of 5% to 20% of soot particle deposition efficiency in human alveoli. We conclude that aerosol mixing state, which evolves during the interaction between atmospheric chemistry and meteorology, is important for the comprehensive evaluation of air quality and its implication to public health requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Ching
- Meteorological Research Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency, 1-1 Nagamine, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0052, Japan.
| | - Mizuo Kajino
- Meteorological Research Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency, 1-1 Nagamine, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0052, Japan.
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8577, Japan.
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8
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Quantifying Impacts of Aerosol Mixing State on Nucleation-Scavenging of Black Carbon Aerosol Particles. ATMOSPHERE 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos9010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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9
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Machine Learning to Predict the Global Distribution of Aerosol Mixing State Metrics. ATMOSPHERE 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos9010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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10
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Davis RD, Tolbert MA. Crystal nucleation initiated by transient ion-surface interactions at aerosol interfaces. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2017; 3:e1700425. [PMID: 28776032 PMCID: PMC5517112 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1700425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 06/15/2017] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Particle collisions are a common occurrence in the atmosphere, but no empirical observations exist to fully predict the potential effects of these collisions on air quality and climate projections. The current consensus of heterogeneous crystal nucleation pathways relevant to the atmosphere dictates that collisions with amorphous particles have no effect on the crystallization relative humidity (RH) of aqueous inorganic aerosols because there is no stabilizing ion-surface interaction to facilitate the formation of crystal nuclei. In contrast to this view of heterogeneous nucleation, we report laboratory observations demonstrating that collisions with hydrophobic amorphous organic aerosols induced crystallization of aqueous inorganic microdroplets at high RH, the effect of which was correlated with destabilizing water-mediated ion-specific surface interactions. These same organic aerosols did not induce crystallization once internally mixed in the droplet, pointing toward a previously unconsidered transient ion-specific crystal nucleation pathway that can promote aerosol crystallization via particle collisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan D. Davis
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Margaret A. Tolbert
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- Corresponding author.
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11
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Khalizov AF, Lin Y, Qiu C, Guo S, Collins D, Zhang R. Role of OH-initiated oxidation of isoprene in aging of combustion soot. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:2254-2263. [PMID: 23379649 DOI: 10.1021/es3045339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We have investigated the contribution of OH-initiated oxidation of isoprene to the atmospheric aging of combustion soot. The experiments were conducted in a fluoropolymer chamber on size-classified soot aerosols in the presence of isoprene, photolytically generated OH, and nitrogen oxides. The evolution in the mixing state of soot was monitored from simultaneous measurements of the particle size and mass, which were used to calculate the particle effective density, dynamic shape factor, mass fractal dimension, and coating thickness. When soot particles age, the increase in mass is accompanied by a decrease in particle mobility diameter and an increase in effective density. Coating material not only fills in void spaces, but also causes partial restructuring of fractal soot aggregates. For thinly coated aggregates, the single scattering albedo increases weakly because of the decreased light absorption and practically unchanged scattering. Upon humidification, coated particles absorb water, leading to an additional compaction. Aging transforms initially hydrophobic soot particles into efficient cloud condensation nuclei at a rate that increases in the presence of nitrogen oxides. Our results suggest that ubiquitous biogenic isoprene plays an important role in aging of anthropogenic soot, shortening its atmospheric lifetime and considerably altering its impacts on air quality and climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei F Khalizov
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University , College Station, Texas, 77843, United States
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Ching J, Riemer N, West M. Impacts of black carbon mixing state on black carbon nucleation scavenging: Insights from a particle-resolved model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2012jd018269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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13
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Kajino M, Kondo Y. EMTACS: Development and regional-scale simulation of a size, chemical, mixing type, and soot shape resolved atmospheric particle model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jd015030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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14
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Knopf DA, Forrester SM, Slade JH. Heterogeneous oxidation kinetics of organic biomass burning aerosol surrogates by O3, NO2, N2O5, and NO3. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:21050-62. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cp22478f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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15
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Matsui H, Koike M, Kondo Y, Takegawa N, Fast JD, Pöschl U, Garland RM, Andreae MO, Wiedensohler A, Sugimoto N, Zhu T. Spatial and temporal variations of aerosols around Beijing in summer 2006: 2. Local and column aerosol optical properties. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jd013895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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16
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Zaveri RA, Barnard JC, Easter RC, Riemer N, West M. Particle-resolved simulation of aerosol size, composition, mixing state, and the associated optical and cloud condensation nuclei activation properties in an evolving urban plume. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd013616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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