Mediterranean Marine Mammals: Possible Future Trends and Threats Due to Mercury Contamination and Interaction with Other Environmental Stressors

Despite decreasing anthropogenic mercury (Hg) emissions in Europe and the banning and restriction of many persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention, Mediterranean marine mammals still have one of the highest body burdens of persistent pollutants in the world. Moreover, the Mediterranean basin is one of the most sensitive to climate change, with likely changes in the biogeochemical cycle and bioavailability of Hg, primary productivity, and the length and composition of pelagic food webs. The availability of food resources for marine mammals is also affected by widespread overfishing and the increasing number of alien species colonizing the basin. After reporting the most recent findings on the biogeochemical cycle of Hg in the Mediterranean Sea and the physico-chemical and bio-ecological factors determining its exceptional bioaccumulation in odontocetes, this review discusses possible future changes in the bioavailability of the metal. Recent ocean-atmosphere-land models predict that in mid-latitude seas, water warming (which in the Mediterranean is 20% faster than the global average) is likely to decrease the solubility of Hg and favor the escape of the metal to the atmosphere. However, the basin has been affected for thousands of years by natural and anthropogenic inputs of metals and climate change with sea level rise (3.6 ± 0.3 mm year-1 in the last two decades), and the frequency of extreme weather events will likely remobilize a large amount of legacy Hg from soils, riverine, and coastal sediments. Moreover, possible changes in pelagic food webs and food availability could determine dietary shifts and lower growth rates in Mediterranean cetaceans, increasing their Hg body burden. Although, in adulthood, many marine mammals have evolved the ability to detoxify monomethylmercury (MMHg) and store the metal in the liver and other organs as insoluble HgSe crystals, in Mediterranean populations more exposed to the metal, this process can deplete the biological pool of Se, increasing their susceptibility to infectious diseases and autoimmune disorders. Mediterranean mammals are also among the most exposed in the world to legacy POPs, micro- and nanoplastics, and contaminants of emerging interest. Concomitant exposure to these synthetic chemicals may pose a much more serious threat than the Se depletion. Unfortunately, as shown by the literature data summarized in this review, the most exposed populations are those living in the NW basin, the main feeding and reproductive area for most Mediterranean cetaceans, declared a sanctuary for their protection since 2002. Thus, while emphasizing the adoption of all available approaches to mitigate anthropogenic pressure with fishing and maritime traffic, it is recommended to direct future research efforts towards the assessment of possible biological effects, at the individual and population levels, of chronic and simultaneous exposure to Hg, legacy POPs, contaminants of emerging interest, and microplastics.

Mercury as a Geophysical Tracer Gas - Emissions from the Emperor Qin Tomb in Xi´an Studied by Laser Radar

Mercury is, because of its high vapor pressure and its prevalence in the atmosphere as atoms, an interesting geophysical tracer gas, also with potential archaeological applications. According to historical records dating back 2200 years, the mausoleum chamber of the “Terracotta Army Emperor” Qin in Xi´an, China, contains large amounts of liquid mercury, considered as an elixir of life at the time. We here report on measurements of the atmospheric contents of atomic mercury above the tomb mound performed with a mobile differential absorption lidar (light detection and ranging) system. Our measurements, which were performed from three different locations around the mound, indeed indicate elevated atmospheric mercury levels, with localizations, which correlate with previous in situ soil sampling results. Concentrations up to 27 ng/m³ were observed, significantly higher than the typical general pollutant level in the area which was found to be around 5–10 ng/m³. An out-flux of about 5×10⁻⁸ kg/s was estimated. Highly volatile mercury may be escaping through cracks, which developed in the structure over time, and our investigation supports ancient chronicle records on the tomb, which is believed never to have been opened/looted. Our findings also have bearings on the proposed use of mercury as a tracer gas for valuable ores and geothermal resource exploration, and also bring problematics around reliable nuclear waste long-term underground storage to mind.

Lidar mapping of atmospheric atomic mercury in the Wanshan area, China

A novel mobile laser radar system was used for mapping gaseous atomic mercury (Hg⁰) atmospheric pollution in the Wanshan district, south of Tongren City, Guizhou Province, China. This area is heavily impacted by legacy mercury from now abandoned mining activities. Differential absorption lidar measurements were supplemented by localized point monitoring using a Lumex RA-915M Zeeman modulation mercury analyzer. Range-resolved concentration measurements in different directions were performed. Concentrations in the lower atmospheric layers often exceeded levels of 100 ng/m³ for March conditions with temperature ranging from 5 °C to 20 °C. A flux measurement of Hg⁰ over a vertical cross section of 0.12 km² resulted in about 29 g/h. Vertical lidar sounding at night revealed quickly falling Hg⁰ concentrations with height. This is the first lidar mapping demonstration in a heavily mercury-polluted area in China, illustrating the lidar potential in complementing point monitors.

Estimating atmospheric mercury concentrations with lichens

The uptake kinetics of elemental gaseous Hg (Hg(0)) in three species of epiphytic lichens (Pseudevernia furfuracea, Evernia prunastri, and Xanthoria parietina) were investigated under four different Hg concentrations (10, 15, 30, and 45 μg/m(3)) and three different temperatures (10, 20, and 30 °C) with the aim of evaluating the lichen efficiency for Hg(0) accumulation and their potential use in the estimate of atmospheric concentrations of this metal in the field. The results showed that under our experimental conditions the lichens accumulated Hg according to exposure time and that the metal is not released back to the atmosphere after Hg(0) was removed from the air (clearance). Pseudevernia furfuracea showed the highest Hg accumulation capacity and Evernia prunastri showed the lowest, but in these species the metal uptake kinetics was affected by temperature. Xanthoria parietina showed an intermediate metal accumulation capacity and a Hg accumulation rate independent of temperature (in the range 10-30 °C). The use of first-order kinetics equations for Hg uptake in X. parietina and available field data on Hg bioaccumulation in this species allowed reliable estimates of atmospheric Hg concentrations in the environment.

Versatile mobile lidar system for environmental monitoring

A mobile lidar (light detection and ranging) system for environmental monitoring is described. The optical and electronic systems are housed in a truck with a retractable rooftop transmission and receiving mirror, connected to a 40-cm-diameter vertically looking telescope. Two injection-seeded Nd:YAG lasers are employed in connection with an optical parametric oscillator-optical parametric amplification transmitter, allowing deep-UV to mid-IR wavelengths to be generated. Fast switching that employs piezoelectric drivers allows multiwavelength differential absorption lidar for simultaneous measurements of several spectrally overlapping atmospheric species. The system can also be used in an imaging multispectral laser-induced fluorescence mode on solid targets. Advanced LabVIEW computer control and multivariate data processing render the system versatile for a multitude of measuring tasks. We illustrate the monitoring of industrial atmospheric mercury and hydrocarbon emissions, volcanic sulfur dioxide plume mapping, fluorescence lidar probing of seawater, and multispectral fluorescence imaging of the facades of a historical monument.