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Liu Z, Bao Y, Thompson LG, Mosley-Thompson E, Tabor C, Zhang GJ, Yan M, Lofverstrom M, Montanez I, Oster J. Tropical mountain ice core δ 18O: A Goldilocks indicator for global temperature change. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadi6725. [PMID: 37939192 PMCID: PMC10631737 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adi6725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
Very high tropical alpine ice cores provide a distinct paleoclimate record for climate changes in the middle and upper troposphere. However, the climatic interpretation of a key proxy, the stable water oxygen isotopic ratio in ice cores (δ18Oice), remains an outstanding problem. Here, combining proxy records with climate models, modern satellite measurements, and radiative-convective equilibrium theory, we show that the tropical δ18Oice is an indicator of the temperature of the middle and upper troposphere, with a glacial cooling of -7.35° ± 1.1°C (66% CI). Moreover, it severs as a "Goldilocks-type" indicator of global mean surface temperature change, providing the first estimate of glacial stage cooling that is independent of marine proxies as -5.9° ± 1.2°C. Combined with all estimations available gives the maximum likelihood estimate of glacial cooling as -5.85° ± 0.51°C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengyu Liu
- Department of Geography, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- School of Geography Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
- Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Yuntao Bao
- Department of Geography, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Lonnie G. Thompson
- Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- School of Earth Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Ellen Mosley-Thompson
- Department of Geography, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Clay Tabor
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Guang J. Zhang
- Scripps Institute of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Mi Yan
- School of Geography Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | | | - Isabel Montanez
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California–Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Jessica Oster
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
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Cabrera M, Moulatlet GM, Valencia BG, Maisincho L, Rodríguez-Barroso R, Albendín G, Sakali A, Lucas-Solis O, Conicelli B, Capparelli MV. Microplastics in a tropical Andean Glacier: A transportation process across the Amazon basin? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 805:150334. [PMID: 34818791 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Microplastic (MPs) contamination is ubiquitous in most terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Recently MPs have been reported at high altitudes which indicates that air masses can transport and deposit MPs in the surface snow of high mountain ecosystems, however, whether MPs typification and abundance can be influenced by direction and origin of air masses still remains an open question. Here we present the first report of MPs above 5000 m a.s.l from surface snow of a glacier in the tropical Andes. We collected surface snow along an elevational gradient, from 5000 to 5400 m a.s.l., in the Antisana Glacier, in the northern Andes cordillera of Ecuador to analyze MPs abundance and polymeric identification with the Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and also to hypothesized the possible MPs sources in this remote area by comparing the oxygen and hydrogen stable isotopic ratio composition of the snow samples and by analyzing the wind direction. We observed an average of 131 ± 24 MPs L-1 in our samples. Fibers corresponded to 70% of all MP shapes; FTIR results showed that MPs composition mainly included polyurethane, polyethylene, polyamide, polyester, and high-density polyethylene in surface snow. There were no statistically significant differences of MPs abundance among sampled elevations, and the isotopic ratio composition did not differ among locations. Our results suggest that MP that accumulated in the glacier may be transported from the east, across the Amazonia, by the prevalent eastward air flow. The absence of industrial cities at least 2000 km further east from Antisana, indicates that the remote Andean glaciers could constitute important depositional zones for long-distance transported contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcela Cabrera
- Laboratorio Nacional de Referencia Del Agua, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Ecuador
| | - Gabriel M Moulatlet
- Facultad de Ciencias de La Tierra y Agua, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Km 7, Vía Muyuna, Tena, Napo, Ecuador
| | - Bryan G Valencia
- Facultad de Ciencias de La Tierra y Agua, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Km 7, Vía Muyuna, Tena, Napo, Ecuador; Grupo de investigación de Ciencias de la Tierra y Clima, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Km 7, Vía Muyuna, Tena, Napo, Ecuador
| | - Luis Maisincho
- Instituto Nacional de Metereología e Hidrología (INAMHI), Iñaquito, N36-14 y, Corea, Quito, Ecuador; Insitut des Geosciences de L'Environnement (IGE, UMR 5001), 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Rocío Rodríguez-Barroso
- Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales, Campus Universitario de Puerto Real, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain
| | - Gemma Albendín
- Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales, Campus Universitario de Puerto Real, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain
| | - Ayda Sakali
- Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales, Campus Universitario de Puerto Real, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain
| | - Oscar Lucas-Solis
- Facultad de Ciencias de La Tierra y Agua, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Km 7, Vía Muyuna, Tena, Napo, Ecuador
| | - Bruno Conicelli
- Facultad de Ciencias de La Tierra y Agua, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Km 7, Vía Muyuna, Tena, Napo, Ecuador; Grupo de investigación de Ciencias de la Tierra y Clima, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Km 7, Vía Muyuna, Tena, Napo, Ecuador
| | - Mariana V Capparelli
- Estación el Carmen, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Carretera Carmen-Puerto Real km 9.5, C. P 24157 Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, Mexico.
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Bergier I, Assine ML, McGlue MM, Alho CJR, Silva A, Guerreiro RL, Carvalho JC. Amazon rainforest modulation of water security in the Pantanal wetland. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 619-620:1116-1125. [PMID: 29734590 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 11/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The Pantanal is a large wetland mainly located in Brazil, whose natural resources are important for local, regional and global economies. Many human activities in the region rely on Pantanal's ecosystem services including cattle breeding for beef production, professional and touristic fishing, and contemplative tourism. The conservation of natural resources and ecosystems services provided by the Pantanal wetland must consider strategies for water security. We explored precipitation data from 1926 to 2016 provided by a regional network of rain gauge stations managed by the Brazilian Government. A timeseries obtained by dividing the monthly accumulated-rainfall by the number of rainy days indicated a positive trend of the mean rate of rainy days (mm/day) for the studied period in all seasons. We assessed the linkage of Pantanal's rainfall patterns with large-scale climate data in South America provided by NOAA/ESRL from 1949 to 2016. Analysis of spatiotemporal correlation maps indicated that, in agreement with previous studies, the Amazon biome plays a significant role in controlling summer rainfall in the Pantanal. Based on these spatiotemporal maps, a multi-linear regression model was built to predict the mean rate of summer rainy days in Pantanal by 2100, relative to the 1961-1990 mean reference. We found that the deforestation of the Amazon rainforest has profound implications for water security and the conservation of Pantanal's ecosystem services.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mario L Assine
- Instituto de Geociências e Ciências Exatas, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
| | - Michael M McGlue
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Cleber J R Alho
- Pós-Graduação em Meio Ambiente, Universidade Anhanguera, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
| | - Aguinaldo Silva
- Departamento de Geografia, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Corumbá, MS, Brazil
| | | | - João C Carvalho
- Water National Agency, Management and Supervision of the National Hydrometeorology Network, Brasília, DF, Brazil
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Knudson KJ, Torres-Rouff C, Stojanowski CM. Investigating human responses to political and environmental change through paleodiet and paleomobility. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2015; 157:179-201. [PMID: 25641703 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Revised: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Bioarchaeological approaches are well suited for examining past responses to political and environmental changes. In the Andes, we hypothesized that political and environmental changes around AD 1100 resulted in behavioral changes, visible as shifts in paleodiet and paleomobility, among individuals in the San Pedro de Atacama oases and Loa River Valley. To investigate this hypothesis, we generated carbon and oxygen isotope data from cemeteries dating to the early Middle Horizon (Larache, Quitor-5, Solor-3), late Middle Horizon (Casa Parroquial, Coyo Oriental, Coyo-3, Solcor-Plaza, Solcor-3, Tchecar), and Late Intermediate Period (Caspana, Quitor-6 Tardío, Toconce, Yaye-1, Yaye-2, Yaye-3, Yaye-4). Carbon isotope data demonstrate a greater range of carbon sources during the late Middle Horizon compared with the Late Intermediate Period; while most individuals consumed largely C3 sources, some late Middle Horizon individuals consumed more C4 sources. Oxygen isotope data demonstrate greater diversity in drinking water sources during the late Middle Horizon compared with the Late Intermediate Period. Water samples were analyzed to provide baseline data on oxygen isotope variability within the Atacama Desert, and demonstrated that oxygen isotope values are indistinguishable in the San Pedro and Loa Rivers. However, oxygen isotope values in water sources in the high-altitude altiplano and coast are distinct from those in the San Pedro and Loa Rivers. In conclusion, instead of utilizing a wider variety of resources after environmental and political changes, individuals exhibited a wider range of paleodietary and paleomobility strategies during the Middle Horizon, a period of environmental and political stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J Knudson
- Center for Bioarchaeological Research, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
| | - Christina Torres-Rouff
- Anthropology, School of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts, University of California, Merced, CA.,Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo, Universidad Católica del Norte, San Pedro de Atacama, Chile
| | - Christopher M Stojanowski
- Center for Bioarchaeological Research, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
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A 30,000 year Record of13C and18O changes in Organic Matter from an Equatorial Peatbog. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1029/gm078p0343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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6
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Dettman DL, Lohmann KC. Seasonal Change in Paleogene Surface Water δ 18O: Fresh-Water Bivalves of Western North America. CLIMATE CHANGE IN CONTINENTAL ISOTOPIC RECORDS 2013. [DOI: 10.1029/gm078p0153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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7
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Interpreting Continental Oxygen Isotope Records. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1029/gm078p0037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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8
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The altitude effect of δ 18O in precipitation and river water in the Southern Himalayas. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s11434-012-4992-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Thompson LG, Mosley-Thompson E, Davis ME, Lin PN, Henderson KA, Cole-Dai J, Bolzan JF, Liu KB. Late glacial stage and holocene tropical ice core records from huascaran, peru. Science 2010; 269:46-50. [PMID: 17787701 DOI: 10.1126/science.269.5220.46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 652] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Two ice cores from the col of Huascarán in the north-central Andes of Peru contain a paleoclimatic history extending well into the Wisconsinan (Würm) Glacial Stage and include evidence of the Younger Dryas cool phase. Glacial stage conditions at high elevations in the tropics appear to have been as much as 8 degrees to 12 degrees C cooler than today, the atmosphere contained about 200 times as much dust, and the Amazon Basin forest cover may have been much less extensive. Differences in both the oxygen isotope ratio zeta(18)O (8 per mil) and the deuterium excess (4.5 per mil) from the Late Glacial Stage to the Holocene are comparable with polar ice core records. These data imply that the tropical Atlantic was possibly 5 degrees to 6 degrees C cooler during the Late Glacial Stage, that the climate was warmest from 8400 to 5200 years before present, and that it cooled gradually, culminating with the Little Ice Age (200 to 500 years before present). A strong warming has dominated the last two centuries.
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Brown D, Worden J, Noone D. Comparison of atmospheric hydrology over convective continental regions using water vapor isotope measurements from space. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2007jd009676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Brown J, Simmonds I, Noone D. Modeling δ18O in tropical precipitation and the surface ocean for present-day climate. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/2004jd005611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Davis ME. Forcing of the Asian monsoon on the Tibetan Plateau: Evidence from high-resolution ice core and tropical coral records. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1029/2004jd004933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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15
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Vuille M, Bradley RS, Werner M, Healy R, Keimig F. Modeling δ
18
O in precipitation over the tropical Americas: 1. Interannual variability and climatic controls. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2001jd002038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Vuille
- Climate System Research Center, Department of Geosciences University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA
| | - R. S. Bradley
- Climate System Research Center, Department of Geosciences University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA
| | - M. Werner
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry Jena Germany
| | - R. Healy
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole Massachusetts USA
| | - F. Keimig
- Climate System Research Center, Department of Geosciences University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA
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Vuille M, Bradley RS, Healy R, Werner M, Hardy DR, Thompson LG, Keimig F. Modeling δ
18
O in precipitation over the tropical Americas: 2. Simulation of the stable isotope signal in Andean ice cores. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2001jd002039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Vuille
- Climate System Research Center, Department of Geosciences University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA
| | - R. S. Bradley
- Climate System Research Center, Department of Geosciences University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA
| | - R. Healy
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole Massachusetts USA
| | - M. Werner
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry Jena Germany
| | - D. R. Hardy
- Climate System Research Center, Department of Geosciences University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA
| | - L. G. Thompson
- Byrd Polar Research Center Ohio State University Columbus Ohio USA
| | - F. Keimig
- Climate System Research Center, Department of Geosciences University of Massachusetts Amherst Massachusetts USA
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Thompson LG, Mosley-Thompson E, Davis ME, Lin PN, Henderson K, Mashiotta TA. Tropical Glacier and Ice Core Evidence of Climate Change on Annual to Millennial Time Scales. ADVANCES IN GLOBAL CHANGE RESEARCH 2003. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-015-1252-7_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Stichler W, Schotterer U, Fröhlich K, Ginot P, Kull C, Gäggeler H, Pouyaud B. Influence of sublimation on stable isotope records recovered from high-altitude glaciers in the tropical Andes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2001. [DOI: 10.1029/2001jd900179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Barker PA, Street-Perrott FA, Leng MJ, Greenwood PB, Swain DL, Perrott RA, Telford RJ, Ficken KJ. A 14,000-year oxygen isotope record from diatom silica in two alpine lakes on Mt. Kenya. Science 2001; 292:2307-10. [PMID: 11423656 DOI: 10.1126/science.1059612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Oxygen isotopes are sensitive tracers of climate change in tropical regions. Abrupt shifts of up to 18 per mil in the oxygen isotope ratio of diatom silica have been found in a 14,000-year record from two alpine lakes on Mt. Kenya. Interpretation of tropical-montane isotope records is controversial, especially concerning the relative roles of precipitation and temperature. Here, we argue that Holocene variations in delta(18)O are better explained by lake moisture balance than by temperature-induced fractionation. Episodes of heavy convective precipitation dated approximately 11,100 to 8600, 6700 to 5600, 2900 to 1900, and <1300 years before the present were linked to enhanced soil erosion, neoglacial ice advances, and forest expansion on Mt. Kenya.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Barker
- Department of Geography, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YB, UK
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Henderson KA, Thompson LG, Lin PN. Recording of El Niño in ice core δ18O records from Nevado Huascarán, Peru. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1029/1999jd900966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Summer monsoon and dust signals recorded in the Dasuopu firn core, central Himalayas. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02887130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Cole JE, Rind D, Webb RS, Jouzel J, Healy R. Climatic controls on interannual variability of precipitation δ18O: Simulated influence of temperature, precipitation amount, and vapor source region. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1029/1999jd900182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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23
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Hoffmann G, Werner M, Heimann M. Water isotope module of the ECHAM atmospheric general circulation model: A study on timescales from days to several years. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998. [DOI: 10.1029/98jd00423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 291] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Vuille M, Hardy DR, Braun C, Keimig F, Bradley RS. Atmospheric circulation anomalies associated with 1996/1997 summer precipitation events on Sajama Ice Cap, Bolivia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998. [DOI: 10.1029/98jd00681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Yao T, Thompson LG, Mosley-Thompson E, Zhihong Y, Xingping Z, Lin PN. Climatological significance of δ18O in north Tibetan ice cores. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1996. [DOI: 10.1029/96jd02683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Joseph A, Frangi JP, Aranyossy JF. Isotope characteristics of meteoric water and groundwater in the Sahelo-Sudanese zone. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1992. [DOI: 10.1029/92jd00288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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28
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Holdsworth G, Fogarasi S, Krouse HR. Variation of the stable isotopes of water with altitude in the Saint Elias Mountains of Canada. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1991. [DOI: 10.1029/91jd00048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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