Methods and approaches to study plant mitochondrial alternative oxidase

Bioreactor Systems for Plant Cell Cultivation at the Institute of Plant Physiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences: 50 Years of Technology Evolution from Laboratory to Industrial Implications

The cultivation of plant cells in large-scale bioreactor systems has long been considered a promising alternative for the overexploitation of wild plants as a source of bioactive phytochemicals. This idea, however, faced multiple constraints upon realization, resulting in very few examples of technologically feasible and economically effective biotechnological companies. The bioreactor cultivation of plant cells is challenging. Even well-growing and highly biosynthetically potent cell lines require a thorough optimization of cultivation parameters when upscaling the cultivation process from laboratory to industrial volumes. The optimization includes, but is not limited to, the bioreactor's shape and design, cultivation regime (batch, fed-batch, continuous, semi-continuous), aeration, homogenization, anti-foaming measures, etc., while maintaining a high biomass and metabolite production. Based on the literature data and our experience, the cell cultures often demonstrate cell line- or species-specific responses to parameter changes, with the dissolved oxygen concentration (pO2) and shear stress caused by stirring being frequent growth-limiting factors. The mass transfer coefficient also plays a vital role in upscaling the cultivation process from smaller to larger volumes. The Experimental Biotechnological Facility at the K.A. Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology has operated since the 1970s and currently hosts a cascade of bioreactors from the laboratory (20 L) to the pilot (75 L) and a semi-industrial volume (630 L) adapted for the cultivation of plant cells. In this review, we discuss the most appealing cases of the cell cultivation process's adaptation to bioreactor conditions featuring the cell cultures of medicinal plants Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb., Taxus wallichiana Zucc., Stephania glabra (Roxb.) Miers, Panax japonicus (T. Nees) C.A.Mey., Polyscias filicifolia (C. Moore ex E. Fourn.) L.H. Bailey, and P. fruticosa L. Harms. The results of cell cultivation in bioreactors of different types and designs using various cultivation regimes are covered and compared with the literature data. We also discuss the role of the critical factors affecting cell behavior in bioreactors with large volumes.

Brassinolide promotes interaction between chloroplasts and mitochondria during the optimization of photosynthesis by the mitochondrial electron transport chain in mesophyll cell protoplasts of Arabidopsis thaliana

The current experimental data unveils the role of brassinolide (BL), a phytohormone of class brassinosteroids (BRs), in augmenting the cross-talk between the mitochondrial electron transport chain (mETC) and chloroplasts to strengthen the efficiency of the Calvin-Benson cycle (CBC) for higher assimilation of carbon dioxide in the mesophyll cell protoplasts (MCP) of Arabidopsis thaliana. The outcome of total respiration (TR) and photosynthetic carbon assimilation (PCA) was monitored as O₂ uptake under dark and NaHCO₃-dependent O₂ evolution under light, respectively, after pre-incubation of MCP at a broad spectrum of BL concentration from 0.05 pM to 5 pM at 25 °C and optimum light intensity of 1000 μmol m^-2 s^-1. The addition of optimal concentration (0.5 pM) of BL to MCP stimulated the (i) TR, (ii) PCA, and (iii) para-benzoquinone-dependent O₂ evolution (PSII activity). Further, in response to BL, the enzyme activity or transcript levels of redox-regulated CBC enzymes and glucose-6-phosphate raised considerably. Also, the addition of BL to MCP remarkably accelerated the capacity of the cytochrome oxidase (COX) and alternative oxidase (AOX) pathways concurrently with an increase in total cellular pyruvate and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. Besides, malate valve components (Malate, Chl-MDH, M-MDH) increased in response to BL. At the same time, the cellular redox ratios of pyridine nucleotides (NADPH and NADH) were kept low in the presence of BL. However, BL could not keep up the CBC activity of photosynthesis along with its associated light-activated enzymes/transcripts when mETC through COX or AOX pathway is restricted by antimycin A (AA) or salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM), respectively. In contrast, adding BL to MCP under restricted mETC showed aggravation in total cellular ROS, pyruvate, malate, and redox ratio of pyridine nucleotides with a concomitant increase in transcripts associated with malate valve and antioxidant systems. These results suggest that BL enhances the PCA by coordinating in cross-talk of chloroplasts and mitochondria to regulate the cellular redox ratio or ROS through the involvement of COX and AOX pathways along with the malate valve and antioxidant systems.

Arabidopsis seedlings display a remarkable resilience under severe mineral starvation using their metabolic plasticity to remain self-sufficient for weeks

During the life cycle of plants, seedlings are considered vulnerable because they are at the interface between the highly stress tolerant seed embryos and the established plant, and must develop rapidly, often in a challenging environment, with limited access to nutrients and light. Using a simple experimental system, whereby the seedling stage of Arabidopsis is considerably prolonged by nutrient starvation, we analysed the physiology and metabolism of seedlings maintained in such conditions up to 4 weeks. Although development was arrested at the cotyledon stage, there was no sign of senescence and seedlings remained viable for weeks, yielding normal plants after transplantation. Photosynthetic activity compensated for respiratory carbon losses, and energy dissipation by photorespiration and alternative oxidase appeared important. Photosynthates were essentially stored as organic acids, while the pool of free amino acids remained stable. Seedlings lost the capacity to store lipids in cytosolic lipid droplets, but developed large plastoglobuli. Arabidopsis seedlings arrested in their development because of mineral starvation displayed therefore a remarkable resilience, using their metabolic and physiological plasticity to maintain a steady state for weeks, allowing resumption of development when favourable conditions ensue.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis with Arundo donax Decreases Root Respiration and Increases Both Photosynthesis and Plant Biomass Accumulation

The effect of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) symbiosis on plant growth is associated with the balance between costs and benefits. A feedback regulation loop has been described in which the higher carbohydrate cost to plants for AM symbiosis is compensated by increases in their photosynthetic rates. Nevertheless, plant carbon balance depends both on photosynthetic carbon uptake and respiratory carbon consumption. The hypothesis behind this research was that the role of respiration in plant growth under AM symbiosis may be as important as that of photosynthesis. This hypothesis was tested in Arundo donax L. plantlets inoculated with Rhizophagus irregularis and Funneliformis mosseae. We tested the effects of AM inoculation on both photosynthetic capacity and in vivo leaf and root respiration. Additionally, analyses of the primary metabolism and ion content were performed in both leaves and roots. AM inoculation increased photosynthesis through increased CO₂ diffusion and electron transport in the chloroplast. Moreover, respiration decreased only in AM roots via the cytochrome oxidase pathway (COP) as measured by the oxygen isotope technique. This decline in the COP can be related to the reduced respiratory metabolism and substrates (sugars and tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates) observed in roots.

Measurement of Mitochondrial Respiration in Isolated Protoplasts: Cytochrome and Alternative Pathways

The electron partitioning between COX and AOX pathways of mitochondria and their coordination is necessary to meet the energy demands as well as to maintain optimized redox status in plants under varying environmental conditions. The relative contribution of these two pathways to total respiration is an important measure during a given stress condition. We describe in detail the procedure that allows the measurement of the parameters of COX and AOX pathway of respiration in mesophyll protoplasts using Clark-type O2 electrode. This chapter also lists the steps for rapid isolation procedure for mesophyll protoplasts from pea leaves. The advantages and limitations of the use of metabolic inhibitors and the protoplasts for measuring the respiration are also briefly discussed.

Light regulation of mitochondrial alternative oxidase pathway during greening of etiolated wheat seedlings

This study deals with effects of de-etiolation (48h) of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L., var. Irgina) seedlings on differential expression of AOX1 genes, levels of AOX protein and the alternative respiratory pathway (AP) capacity. As a result of exposure to continuous irradiation of dark-grown wheat seedlings, the respiratory activity and AP capacity in leaves significantly increased during the first 6h of studies. Expression of AOX1a was up-regulated by light and proved consistent with changes in the AP capacity. Effects on expression of AOX1c were less pronounced. Immunoblot analysis showed three distinct bands of AOX with molecular weights of 34, 36 and 38kDa, with no significant changes in the relative levels during de-etiolation. The lack of a clear correlation between AOX protein amount, AOX1a expression, and AP capacity suggests post-translational control of the enzyme activation. The AOX1a suppression and a decrease in the AP capacity correlated with the sugar pool depletion after 24h of the de-etiolation, which may mean a possible substrate dependence of the AOX activity in the green cells. More efficient malate oxidation by mitochondria as well as the higher AOX capacity during the first 6h of de-etiolation was detected, whereas respiration and AOX capacity with exogenous NADH and glycine increased after 6 and 24h, respectively. We conclude that AOX plays an important role during development of an actively photosynthesizing cell, and can rapidly adapt to changes in metabolism and photosynthesis.

Alternative oxidase: a mitochondrial respiratory pathway to maintain metabolic and signaling homeostasis during abiotic and biotic stress in plants

Alternative oxidase (AOX) is a non-energy conserving terminal oxidase in the plant mitochondrial electron transport chain. While respiratory carbon oxidation pathways, electron transport, and ATP turnover are tightly coupled processes, AOX provides a means to relax this coupling, thus providing a degree of metabolic homeostasis to carbon and energy metabolism. Beside their role in primary metabolism, plant mitochondria also act as "signaling organelles", able to influence processes such as nuclear gene expression. AOX activity can control the level of potential mitochondrial signaling molecules such as superoxide, nitric oxide and important redox couples. In this way, AOX also provides a degree of signaling homeostasis to the organelle. Evidence suggests that AOX function in metabolic and signaling homeostasis is particularly important during stress. These include abiotic stresses such as low temperature, drought, and nutrient deficiency, as well as biotic stresses such as bacterial infection. This review provides an introduction to the genetic and biochemical control of AOX respiration, as well as providing generalized examples of how AOX activity can provide metabolic and signaling homeostasis. This review also examines abiotic and biotic stresses in which AOX respiration has been critically evaluated, and considers the overall role of AOX in growth and stress tolerance.

In vivo cytochrome and alternative pathway respiration in leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana plants with altered alternative oxidase under different light conditions

The in vivo activity of the alternative pathway (ν(alt)) has been studied using the oxygen isotope fractionation method in leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana modified for the expression of the AtAOX1a gene by anti-sense (AS-12) or overexpression (XX-2). Under non-stressful conditions, ν(alt) was similar in all plant lines regardless of its different alternative pathway capacities (V(alt)). Total leaf respiration (V(t)) and V(alt) were directly related to growth light conditions while electron partitioning between the cytochrome pathway (CP) and alternative pathway (AP) was unchanged by light levels. Interestingly, the AP functioned at full capacity in anti-sense plants under both growth light conditions. The role of the AP in response to a high light stress induced by short-term high light treatment (HLT) was also studied. In wild type and XX-2, both CP and AP rates increased proportionally after HLT while in AS-12, where the AP was unable to increase its rate, the CP accommodated all the increase in respiration. The results obtained under high light stress suggest that flexibility in the response of the mitochondrial electron transport chain is involved in sustaining photosynthetic rates in response to this stress while the saturated AP in AS-12 plants may contribute to the observed increase in photoinhibition.

Steps towards a mechanistic understanding of respiratory temperature responses

Temperature crucially affects the speed of metabolic processes in poikilotherm organisms, including plants. The instantaneous temperature responses of O(2)-reduction and CO(2)-release can be approximated by Arrhenius kinetics, even though respiratory gas exchange of plants is the net effect of many constituent biochemical processes. Nonetheless, the classical Arrhenius equation must be modified to account for a dynamic response to measurement temperatures. We show that this dynamic response is readily explained by combining Arrhenius and Michaelis-Menten kinetics, as part of a fresh appraisal of metabolic interpretations of instantaneous temperature responses. In combination with recent experimental findings, we argue that control of mitochondrial electron flow is shared among cytochrome oxidase and alternative oxidase under in vivo conditions, and is continuously coordinated. In this way, upstream carbohydrate metabolism and downstream electron transport appear to be optimized according to the demand of ATP, TCA-cycle intermediates and anabolic reducing power under differing metabolic states. We provide a link to the 'Growth and Maintenance Paradigm' of respiration and argue that respiratory temperature responses can be used as a tool to probe metabolic states of plant tissue, such that we can learn more about the mechanisms that govern longer-term acclimatization responses of plant metabolism.

Nitric oxide increases mitochondrial respiration in a cGMP-dependent manner in the callus from Arabidopsis thaliana

Nitric oxide (NO) acts as a key molecule in many physiological processes in plants. In this study, the roles of NO in mitochondrial respiration were investigated in the calli from wild-type Arabidopsis and NO associated 1 mutant (Atnoa1) which has a reduced endogenous NO level. Long-term exposure of wild-type Arabidopsis callus to sodium nitroprusside (SNP) increased mitochondrial respiration in both cytochrome and alternative pathways. In Atnoa1 callus, the capacity of both the cytochrome pathway and the alternative pathway was lower than that in wild-type callus. Further study indicated that NO enhanced the transcript abundance of genes encoding mitochondrial respiration-chain proteins as well as the protein expression of the NADH-ubiquinone reductase 75 kDa subunit and the alternative oxidase 1/2 in wild-type and Atnoa1 calli. 2-Phenyl-4,4,5,5-tetremethy-limidazolinone-1-oxyl-3-oxide (PTIO), a NO scavenger, inhibited the effects of NO in both calli. Co-incubation of callus with 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ), a guanylate cyclase inhibitor, also abolished NO effects. The membrane-permeable cGMP analog 8Br-cGMP mimicked NO effects. Moreover, the alternative pathway showed a higher sensitivity to the cellular cGMP changes than the cytochrome pathway did in gene transcription, protein expression and O(2) consumption. Taken together, NO could enhance mitochondrial respiration in both cytochrome and alternative pathways in a cGMP-dependent manner in Arabidopsis.

Changes of alternative oxidase activity, capacity and protein content in leaves of Cucumis sativus wild-type and MSC16 mutant grown under different light intensities

In vitro studies demonstrated that alternative oxidase (AOX) is biochemically regulated by a sulfhydryl-disulfide system, interaction with alpha-ketoacids, ubiquinone pool redox state and protein content among others. However, there is still scarce information about the in vivo regulation of the AOX. Cucumis sativus wild-type (WT) and MSC16 mutant plants were grown under two different light intensities and were used to analyze the relationship between the amount of leaf AOX protein and its in vivo capacity and activity at night and day periods. WT and MSC16 plants presented lower total respiration (V(t)), cytochrome oxidase pathway (COP) activity (v(cyt)) and alternative oxidase pathway (AOP) activity (v(alt)) when grown at low light (LL), although growth light intensity did not change the amount of cytochrome oxidase (COX) nor AOX protein. Changes of v(cyt) related to growing light conditions suggested a substrate availability and energy demand control. On the other hand, the total amount of AOX protein present in the tissue does not play a role in the regulation neither of the capacity nor of the activity of the AOP in vivo. Soluble carbohydrates were directly related to the activity of the AOP. However, although differences in soluble sugar contents mostly regulate the capacity of the AOP at different growth light intensities, additional regulatory mechanisms are necessary to fully explain the observed results.

Metabolic responses in iron deficient tomato plants

The effects of Fe deficiency on different metabolic processes were characterized in roots, xylem sap and leaves of tomato. The total organic acid pool increased significantly with Fe deficiency in xylem sap and leaves of tomato plants, whereas it did not change in roots. However, the composition of the pool changed with Fe deficiency, with major increases in citrate concentrations in roots (20-fold), leaves (2-fold) and xylem sap (17-fold). The activity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, an enzyme leading to anaplerotic C fixation, increased 10-fold in root tip extracts with Fe deficiency, whereas no change was observed in leaf extracts. The activities of the organic acid synthesis-related enzymes malate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, fumarase and aconitase, as well as those of the enzymes lactate dehydrogenase and pyruvate carboxylase, increased with Fe deficiency in root extracts, whereas only citrate synthase increased significantly with Fe deficiency in leaf extracts. These results suggest that the enhanced C fixation capacity in Fe-deficient tomato roots may result in producing citrate that could be used for Fe xylem transport. Total pyridine nucleotide pools did not change significantly with Fe deficiency in roots or leaves, although NAD(P)H/NAD(P) ratios were lower in Fe-deficient roots than in controls. Rates of O(2) consumption were similar in Fe-deficient and Fe-sufficient roots, but the capacity of the alternative oxidase pathway was decreased by Fe deficiency. Also, increases in Fe reductase activity with Fe deficiency were only 2-fold higher when measured in tomato root tips. These values are significantly lower than those found in other plant species, where Fe deficiency leads to larger increases in organic acid synthesis-related enzyme activities and flavin accumulation. These data support the hypothesis that the extent of activation of different metabolic pathways, including carbon fixation via PEPC, organic acid synthesis-related enzymes and oxygen consumption is different among species, and this could modulate the different levels of efficiency in Strategy I plants.

Temperature-sensitive alternative oxidase protein content and its relationship to floral reflectance in natural Plantago lanceolata populations

In many plant species, the alternative respiratory pathway consisting of alternative oxidase (AOX) is affected by growth temperature. The adaptive significance of this temperature-sensitivity is unresolved. Here, leaf and spike (flower cluster) AOX protein content and spike/floral reflectance of genotypes from European Plantago lanceolata populations found in regions differing in reproductive season temperatures were measured. Cloned genotypes grown at controlled warm and cool temperatures were used to assess the natural within- and between-population variation in AOX content, temperature-sensitive phenotypic plasticity in content, and the relationship between AOX and temperature-sensitive floral/spike reflectance. AOX content and plasticity were genetically variable. Leaf AOX content, although greater at cool temperature, was relatively low and not statistically different across populations. Spike AOX content was greater than in leaves. Spike AOX plasticity differed significantly among populations and climate-types and showed significant negative correlation with floral reflectance plasticity, which also varied among populations. Genotypes with more AOX at cool than at warm temperature had greater floral reflectance plasticity; genotypes with relatively more AOX at warm temperature had less floral reflectance plasticity. The data support the hypothesis that plasticity of AOX content in reproductive tissues is associated with long-term thermal acclimatization.

The alternative oxidase mediated respiration contributes to growth, resistance to hyperosmotic media and accumulation of secondary metabolites in three species

Plant respiration, similar to respiration in animal mitochondria, exhibits both osmosensitive and insensitive components with the clear distinction that the insensitive respiration in plants is quantitatively better described as 'less' sensitive rather than 'insensitive'. Salicylic hydroxamic acid (SHAM)-sensitive respiration was compared with the respiration sensitive to other inhibitors in rice, yeast and Dunaliella salina. The influence of SHAM was largely in the osmotically less sensitive component and enhanced with external osmotic pressure unlike other inhibitors that inhibited the osmotically sensitive component. SHAM inhibited germination and root growth but not shoot growth. Osmotic remediation of respiration that developed in due course of time with rice seedlings was abolished by SHAM and was not due to water and ionic uptake mechanisms. Yeast and Dunaliella also showed susceptibility of growth and respiration to SHAM. Glycerol retention was influenced by all inhibitors, while growth was inhibited demonstrably by SHAM in Dunaliella. Respiration in plants needs to be seen as a positive contribution to overall growth and not merely for burning away of the biomass.

Mitochondrial alternative pathway is associated with development of freezing tolerance in common wheat

Cold acclimation is an adaptive process for acquiring cold/freezing tolerance in wheat. To clarify the cultivar difference of freezing tolerance, we compared mitochondrial respiration activity and the expression profile of alternative oxidase (AOX) genes under low-temperature conditions using two common wheat cultivars differing in freezing tolerance. During cold acclimation, the respiration capacity of the alternative pathway significantly increased in a freezing-tolerant cultivar compared with a freezing-sensitive cultivar. More abundant accumulation of the AOX and uncoupling protein gene transcripts was also observed under the low-temperature conditions in the tolerant cultivar than in the sensitive cultivar. These results suggest that the mitochondrial alternative pathway might be partly associated with the cold acclimation and freezing tolerance in wheat.

Effect of mitochondrial genome rearrangement on respiratory activity, photosynthesis, photorespiration and energy status of MSC16 cucumber (Cucumis sativus) mutant

The effects of changes in mitochondrial DNA in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) mosaic mutant (MSC16) on respiration, photosynthesis and photorespiration were analyzed under non-stressed conditions. Decreased respiratory capacity of complex I in MSC16 mitochondria was indicated by lower respiration rates of intact mitochondria with malate and by rotenone-inhibited NADH or malate oxidation in the presence of alamethicin. Moreover, blue native PAGE indicated decreased intensity of protein bands of respiratory chain complex I in MSC16 leaves. Concerning the redox state, complex I impairment could be compensated to some extent by increased external NADH dehydrogenases (ND(ex)NADH) and alternative oxidase (AOX) capacity, the latter presenting differential expression in the light and in the dark. Although MSC16 mitochondria have a higher AOX protein level and an increased capacity, the AOX activity measured in the dark conditions by oxygen discrimination technique is similar to that in wild-type (WT) plants. Photosynthesis induction by light followed different patterns in WT and MSC16, suggesting changes in feedback chloroplast DeltapH caused by different adenylate levels. At steady-state, net photosynthesis was only slightly impaired in MSC16 mutants, while photorespiration rate (PR) was significantly increased. This was the result of large decreases in both stomatal and mesophyll conductance to CO2, which resulted in a lower CO2 concentration in the chloroplasts. The observed changes on CO2 diffusion caused by mitochondrial mutations open a whole new view of interaction between organelle metabolism and whole tissue physiology. The sum of all the described changes in photosynthetic and respiratory metabolism resulted in a lower ATP availability and a slower plant growth.

Expression of uncoupling protein and alternative oxidase depends on lipid or carbohydrate substrates in thermogenic plants

Thermogenesis, in which cellular respiratory activity is considerably stimulated, requires mitochondrial uncoupling protein (UCP) in mammals and an alternative oxidase (AOX) in plants. Here, we show that the genes for both proteins are expressed in thermogenic plants, but the type correlates with the respiratory substrate. A novel gene termed PsUCPa encoding a variant of UCP was specifically expressed in thermogenic flowers of Philodendron selloum, which uses lipids as substrates. However, a gene termed DvAOX encoding for AOX protein was expressed in thermogenic flowers of Dracunculus vulgaris, which presumably uses carbohydrates as substrates. These findings suggest that cellular metabolism is a major determinant in selective expression of appropriate thermogenic genes in plants.

Interaction between nitric oxide and ethylene in the induction of alternative oxidase in ozone-treated tobacco plants

The higher plant mitochondrial electron transport chain contains, in addition to the cytochrome chain, an alternative pathway that terminates with a single homodimeric protein, the alternative oxidase (AOX). We recorded temporary inhibition of cytochrome capacity respiration and activation of AOX pathway capacity in tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum L. cv BelW3) fumigated with ozone (O(3)). The AOX1a gene was used as a molecular probe to investigate its regulation by signal molecules such as hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide (NO), ethylene (ET), salicylic acid, and jasmonic acid (JA), all of them reported to be involved in the O(3) response. Fumigation leads to accumulation of hydrogen peroxide in mitochondria and early accumulation of NO in leaf tissues. Although ET accumulation was high in leaf tissues 5 h after the start of O(3) fumigation, it declined during the recovery period. There were no differences in the JA and 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid levels of treated and untreated plants. NO, JA, and ET induced AOX1a mRNA accumulation. Using pharmacological inhibition of ET and NO, we demonstrate that both NO- and ET-dependent pathways are required for O(3)-induced up-regulation of AOX1a. However, only NO is indispensable for the activation of AOX1a gene expression.

Alternative oxidases in Arabidopsis: A comparative analysis of differential expression in the gene family provides new insights into function of non-phosphorylating bypasses

The emergence of Arabidopsis as a model plant provides an opportunity to gain insights into the role of the alternative oxidase that cannot be as readily achieved in other plant species. The analysis of extensive mRNA expression data indicates that all five Aox genes (Aox1a, 1b, 1c, 1d and 2) are expressed, but organ and developmental regulation are evident, suggesting regulatory specialisation of Aox gene members. The stress-induced nature of the alternative pathway in a variety of plants is further supported in Arabidopsis as Aox1a and Aox1d are amongst the most stress responsive genes amongst the hundreds of known genes encoding mitochondrial proteins. Analysis of genes co-expressed with Aoxs from studies of responses to various treatments altering mitochondrial functions and/or from plants with altered Aox levels reveals that: (i) this gene set encodes more functions outside the mitochondrion than functions in mitochondria, (ii) several pathways for induction exist and there is a difference in the magnitude of the induction in each pathway, (iii) the magnitude of induction may depend on the endogenous levels of Aox, and (iv) induction of Aox can be oxidative stress-dependent or -independent depending on the gene member and the tissue analysed. An overall role for Aox in re-programming cellular metabolism in response to the ever changing environment encountered by plants is proposed.

Effects of water stress on respiration in soybean leaves

The effect of water stress on respiration and mitochondrial electron transport has been studied in soybean (Glycine max) leaves, using the oxygen-isotope-fractionation technique. Treatments with three levels of water stress were applied by irrigation to replace 100%, 50%, and 0% of daily water use by transpiration. The levels of water stress were characterized in terms of light-saturated stomatal conductance (g(s)): well irrigated (g(s) > 0.2 mol H(2)O m(-2) s(-1)), mildly water stressed (g(s) between 0.1 and 0.2 mol H(2)O m(-2) s(-1)), and severely water stressed (g(s) < 0.1 mol H(2)O m(-2) s(-1)). Although net photosynthesis decreased by 40% and 70% under mild and severe water stress, respectively, the total respiratory oxygen uptake (V(t)) was not significantly different at any water-stress level. However, severe water stress caused a significant shift of electrons from the cytochrome to the alternative pathway. The electron partitioning through the alternative pathway increased from 10% to 12% under well-watered or mild water-stress conditions to near 40% under severe water stress. Consequently, the calculated rate of mitochondrial ATP synthesis decreased by 32% under severe water stress. Unlike many other stresses, water stress did not affect the levels of mitochondrial alternative oxidase protein. This suggests a biochemical regulation (other than protein synthesis) that causes this mitochondrial electron shift.

Stress-induced co-expression of alternative respiratory chain components in Arabidopsis thaliana

Plant mitochondria contain non-phosphorylating bypasses of the respiratory chain, catalysed by the alternative oxidase (AOX) and alternative NADH dehydrogenases (NDH), as well as uncoupling (UCP) protein. Each of these components either circumvents or short-circuits proton translocation pathways, and each is encoded by a small gene family in Arabidopsis. Whole genome microarray experiments were performed with suspension cell cultures to examine the effects of various 3 h treatments designed to induce abiotic stress. The expression of over 60 genes encoding components of the classical, phosphorylating respiratory chain and tricarboxylic acid cycle remained largely constant when cells were subjected to a broad range of abiotic stresses, but expression of the alternative components responded differentially to the various treatments. In detailed time-course quantitative PCR analysis, specific members of both AOX and NDH gene families displayed coordinated responses to treatments. In particular, the co-expression of AOX1a and NDB2 observed under a number of treatments suggested co-regulation that may be directed by common sequence elements arranged hierarchically in the upstream promoter regions of these genes. A series of treatment sets were identified, representing the response of specific AOX and NDH genes to mitochondrial inhibition, plastid inhibition and abiotic stresses. These treatment sets emphasise the multiplicity of pathways affecting alternative electron transport components in plants.

Beneficial interactions of mitochondrial metabolism with photosynthetic carbon assimilation

Chloroplasts and mitochondria are traditionally considered to be autonomous organelles but they are not as independent as they were once thought to be. Mitochondrial metabolism, particularly the bioenergetic reactions of oxidative electron transport and phosphorylation, continue to be active in the light and are essential for sustaining photosynthetic carbon assimilation. The marked and mutually beneficial interaction between mitochondria and chloroplasts is intriguing. The key compartments within plant cells, including not only mitochondria and chloroplasts but also the peroxisomes and cytosol, appear to be in a delicate metabolic equilibrium. Disturbance of any of these compartments perturbs the metabolism of whole cell. Nevertheless, mitochondria appear to be the key players because they function during both photorespiration and dark respiration.

A tomato alternative oxidase protein with altered regulatory properties

We have investigated the expression and regulatory properties of the two alternative oxidase (Aox) proteins that are expressed in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L. Mill cv. Sweetie) after storage of green fruit at 4 degrees C. Four Aox genes were identified in the tomato genome, of which two (LeAox1a and LeAox1b) were demonstrated to be expressed in cold-treated fruit. The activity and regulatory properties of LeAox1a and LeAox1b were assayed after expression of each protein in yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), proving that each is an active Aox protein. The LeAox1b protein was shown to have altered regulatory properties due to the substitution of a Ser for the highly conserved Cys(I) residue. LeAox1b could not form inactive disulfide-linked dimers and was activated by succinate instead of pyruvate. This is the first example of a dicot species expressing a natural Cys(I)/Ser isoform. The implications of the existence and expression of such Aox isoforms is discussed in the light of the hypothesised role for Aox in plant metabolism.

Alternative oxidase present in procyclic Trypanosoma brucei may act to lower the mitochondrial production of superoxide

The mitochondrial electron transfer chain present in the procyclic form of the African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei contains both cytochrome c oxidase and an alternative oxidase (TAO) as terminal oxidases that reduce oxygen to water. By contrast, the electron transfer chain of the primitive mitochondrion present in the bloodstream form of T. brucei contains only TAO as the terminal oxidase. TAO functions in the bloodstream forms to oxidize the ubiquinol produced by the glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle that results in the oxidation of the reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate produced by glycolysis. The function, however, of TAO in the procyclic forms is unknown. In this study, we found that inhibition of TAO by the specific inhibitor salicylhydroxamic acid stimulates the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in trypanosome mitochondria, resulting in mitochondrial alteration and increased oxidation of cellular proteins. Moreover, the activity and protein content of TAO in procyclic trypanosomes were increased when cells were incubated in the presence of hydrogen peroxide or antimycin A, the cytochrome bc1 complex inhibitor, which also results in increased ROS production. We suggest that one function of TAO in procyclic cells may be to prevent ROS production by removing excess reducing equivalents and transferring them to oxygen.