Physiological activity to internally elicited arousal and inhibitory thoughts

The Physiological Measurement of Imagery: An Overview

A substantial body of research indicates that physiological responses during imagery vary as a function of the nature of the image. A review of this research isolates a number of parameters that influence the magnitude of physiological changes during imaging and clearly demonstrates that images of different affective or emotional experiences are accompanied by different patterns of physiological responses. Physiological measures of imagery thus provide a powerful means of increasing our knowledge and understanding of imaginal processes. It is important, though, that imagery research does not rely exclusively upon physiological measures, for to do so fails to pay sufficient heed to the covert nature of imaging.

Using Guided Imagery as a Primary Intervention in the Development of a Smoking Cessation Program

A formal smoking cessation program was developed using guided imagery as a primary intervention. Seventy-five participants attended seven program sessions that focused on imagery training, practice, and reinforcement. General educational materials concerning smoking and health were also provided to participants. A 79O/6 success rate for smoking reduction/cessation was achieved. Program evaluations reflected that imagery was useful to 25% of the attendees. Other beneficial techniques included behavorial coping responses, behavior modification, and social support. Stress was identified as the major cause offailure to quit cigarettes. Study data provide guidance for the development offuture programs. Further validation and refinement of imagery as a nursing intervention is recommended.

Effects of Irrationality on a Trail Making Performance Task

45 rational and 45 irrational thinkers as defined by Ellis's (1962) theory and assessed by their scores on the Irrational Belief Test were compared on a series of Trail Making tasks. Both groups were assigned to one of three conditions which involved presentation of irrational, neutral, and rational self-referent statements. Superior performance displayed by the rational group provided support for the rational-emotive theory position that irrational beliefs (ideas) generalize their adverse effect to actual performance situations. Except for the first trial the data did not support the expectation that types of self-statements differentially influence efficiency of performance.

Cardiac Response to Internally and Externally Elicited Stressful Imagery as a Function of Field Dependence

The present study investigated heart-rate response to internally and externally elicited stressful imagery as a function of field dependence. 40 female undergraduates were divided into five field-dependent groups. Both the internal and the external modes of presentation included a stimulus block followed by an image block. The internal-stimulus block was an internally elicited thought, while the external-stimulus block was a visually presented typewritten statement. Half of the Ss within each field-dependent group experienced the external mode and half experienced the internal mode. A tone served as the time-locked cue to signal the thoughts and the images. The results indicated that the internal mode produced significantly greater heart-rate response than the external mode, and there was a trend toward field-independent Ss reacting with higher heart rate to both modes. These findings and trends are discussed in terms of the importance of internally elicited cognitive activity in the experience of fear, the Lacey hypothesis of directional fractionation, and the relationship between field dependence and various autonomic and personality characteristics.

Depression: The predisposing influence of stress

Aversive experiences have been thought to provoke or exacerbate clinical depression. The present review provides a brief survey of the stress-depression literature and suggests that the effects of stressful experiences on affective state may be related to depletion of several neurotransmitters, including norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. A major element in determining the neurochemical changes is the organism's ability to cope with the aversive stimuli through behavioral means. Aversive experiences give rise to behavioral attempts to cope with the stressor, coupled with increased utilization and synthesis of brain amines to contend with environmental demands. When behavioral coping is possible, neurochemical systems are not overly taxed, and behavioral pathology will not ensue. However, when there can be no behavioral control over the stressful stimuli, or when the aversive experience is perceived as uncontrollable, increased emphasis is placed on coping through endogenous neurochemical mechanisms. Amine utilization increases appreciably and may exceed synthesis, resulting in a net reduction of amine stores, which in turn promotes or exacerbates affective disorder. The processes governing the depletions may be subject to sensitization or conditioning, such that exposure to traumatic experiences may have long-term repercussions when the organism subsequently encounters related stressful stimuli. With continued uncontrollable stimulation, adaptation occurs in the form of increased activity of synthetic enzymes, and levels of amines approach basal values. It is suggested that either the initial amine depletion provoked by aversive experiences or a dysfunction of the adaptive processes, resulting in persistent amine depletion, contributes to behavioral depression. Aside from the contribution of behavioral coping, several organismic, experiential, and environmental variables will influence the effects of aversive experiences on neurochemical activity, and may thus influence vulnerability to depression.

Depression: an inability to adapt to one's perceived life distress?

A comprehensive biopsychosocial distress adaptation model of depression in which neurochemical shortages are awarded a necessary but insufficient status is proposed. In context of this model, depression is seen as a function of inadequate behavioural, psychological, socioenvironmental and biological coping resources (all of which may be partly a function of genetic factors) for managing one's individually appraised level of life distress. It is further hypothesized that the physiological symptoms of depression arise as a result of a lack of available neurotransmitters to contend with stressors as well as maintain the normal functioning of the individual. Unlike many other theories, this distress adaptation model may account for several of the demographics of depression.

Inner speech and respiration: toward a possible mechanism of stress reduction

Stress reduction associated with slow, deep, regular, diaphragmatic-abdominal respiration has been attributed to arousal reduction and to diversionary effects on the cognitive mediation of stress. Evidence was presented to show that verbal inner speech, self-talk, is a primary cognitive mediator of stress and that inner speech is associated with speech musculature and irregular respiratory movements similar to those of external speech. It was proposed that, if with inner speech one uses and regulates speech musculature and irregular respiratory movements like external speech, then slow, deep, regular, diaphragmatic abdominal respiration may be incompatible with inner speech and may reduce stress by inhibiting stressful self-talk. In addition to describing a stress-reduction mechanism, a potential stress mechanism was suggested wherein fast, shallow, irregular, thoracic breathing and tension of speech musculature associated with stressful self-talk may promote the continuation of stressful self-talk.

Family history of hypertension and cardiovascular changes during high and low affect provocation

The present study investigated whether subjects with a positive family history of hypertension would display differential responses in blood pressure and heart rate across different laboratory tasks. We also wanted to know whether subjects would display stable within-subject responses across different laboratory tasks. Twenty-three family history positive subjects and 23 with a negative family history participated in three tasks: 1) mental arithmetic, 2) a conversation about the weather (low affect task), and 3) a conversation about a recent upsetting, interpersonal event (high affect task). Positive family history was associated with elevated diastolic resting blood pressure and greater diastolic responsivity overall. For both groups, arithmetic was associated with the greatest heart rate changes, whereas the distressing conversation was accompanied by the greatest diastolic blood pressure response. Stability of cardiovascular activation across different tasks was present only for heart rate; it was weak for diastolic blood pressure, and completely absent for systolic blood pressure.

Imagery: A Treatment for Nursing Student Anxiety

This study examined the effectiveness of audiotaped imagery in reducing anxiety and improving test performance among first-year nursing students. Volunteer subjects were randomly assigned to three groups, imagery-only, imagery/relaxation, and a no-treatment control group. Pottest state anxiety scores in these groups were significantly lower (p = .001) than in the no-treatment control group. Test performance did not differ significantly (p = .067). Subjects using the audiotaped imagery reported an increased sense of well-being, improved ability to sleep, greater energy, and improved self-confidence.

Using relaxation with guided imagery to assist primiparas in achieving maternal role attainment

A framework has been developed that provides nurses with a theoretical basis for using relaxation with guided imagery with primiparas (first-time mothers) to reduce anxiety and depression and to increase self-esteem, thereby promoting maternal role attainment and expected infant behavior during the postpartum period. Although relaxation with guided imagery (RGI) has been used clinically in many situations, no research studies were found that reported using RGI with new mothers. However, because RGI has been effective in altering the responses of adults and children in diverse settings, it is inferred that RGI could be effectively used in helping primiparas adapt to the pressure of parenthood. An RGI protocol for use with new mothers is presented.

Effects of relaxation with guided imagery on surgical stress and wound healing

The purpose of this experiment was to determine the effects of an audiotape series employing Relaxation with Guided Imagery (RGI) on the psychophysiologic stress response and wound healing in surgical patients. Twenty-four patients undergoing cholecystectomy were randomly assigned to either RGI or control (quiet period) conditions and measured against three indexes of recovery: state anxiety, urinary cortisol levels, and wound inflammatory responses. An analysis of variance for repeated measures revealed that the RGI group demonstrated significantly less state anxiety, lower cortisol levels one day following surgery, and less surgical wound erythema than the control group. Thus, the RGI tapes demonstrated stress-relieving outcomes closely associated with healing.

A holistic technique to lower anxiety: relaxation with guided imagery

In this study, the Donovan (1980) Relaxation with Guided Imagery (RGI) script was tested to investigate its effects on reducing state anxiety, as measured by the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), on 33 graduate nursing students. The RGI script was administrated three times, at two week intervals between sessions, in a one-group pretest/post-test pre-experimental design. Findings revealed state anxiety levels were reduced in each of the three administrations at the .001 level of confidence; that anxiety reduction was short-term, returning to previous levels in two weeks; and that trait anxiety levels were unchanged. Future research is needed to clarify the relationship between variables.

Two critical psychological components of ski racing: fun and feelings

The concepts of having fun and being aware of feeling states are presented as two critical factors in ski racing. First, the positive motivational characteristics of 'fun' are outlined. It is suggested that fun is not only a concept for young athletes but elite ones as well. Preliminary data based on a questionnaire, completed by the United States Alpine Ski Team and approximately 150 ski coaches, are represented. Second, the discussion on feelings refers to the mental programming of tactile sensations and determining one's emotional arousal (feeling state) prior to, and during, competition. Practical suggestions are made with regard to the psychological states and their effects on ski racing.

Psychological and physiological effects of relaxation and nitrous oxide training

Training in progressive muscle relaxation can improve psychophysiological response to stress but is often time-consuming and may prove ineffective for some individuals. Nitrous Oxide (N2O)may offer an effective adjunct or alternative to training. This study evaluated the relative efficacy of these procedures. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions: relaxation-only, N2O only, relaxation with N2O, and room air-control. The relaxation procedure was modeled on color videotape. Nitrous oxide was administered from a balloon. In addition to various psychological measures, treatment effects were measured for skin temperature, heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and two measures of diastolic blood pressure. Subjective reports of tension were also recorded. There was a significant multivariate difference between treatment groups. The relaxation-only procedure was generally superior to the others on most dependent measures. Subjects receiving N2O appear to have experienced an improvement in mood. Paradoxically, the initially more relaxed subjects seemed to derive the greater benefit from the inhalation of N2O. The use of videotape-modeled relaxation procedures is discussed.