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Post NW, Gilbert CC, Pugh KD, Mongle CS. Implications of outgroup selection in the phylogenetic inference of hominoids and fossil hominins. J Hum Evol 2023; 184:103437. [PMID: 37783198 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2023.103437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the phylogenetic relationships among hominins and other hominoid species is critical to the study of human origins. However, phylogenetic inferences are dependent on both the character data and taxon sampling used. Previous studies of hominin phylogenetics have used Papio and Colobus as outgroups in their analyses; however, these extant monkeys possess many derived traits that may confound the polarities of morphological changes among living apes and hominins. Here, we consider Victoriapithecus and Ekembo as more suitable outgroups. Both Victoriapithecus and Ekembo are anatomically well known and are widely accepted as morphologically primitive stem cercopithecoid and hominoid taxa, respectively, making them more appropriate for inferring polarity for later-occurring hominoid- and hominin-focused analyses. Craniodental characters for both taxa were scored and then added to a previously published matrix of fossil hominin and extant hominoid taxa, replacing outgroups Papio and Colobus over a series of iterative analyses using both parsimony and Bayesian inference methods. Neither the addition nor replacement of outgroup taxa changed tree topology in any analysis. Importantly, however, bootstrap support values and posterior probabilities for nodes supporting their relationships generally increased compared to previous analyses. These increases were the highest at extant hominoid and basal hominin nodes, recovering the molecular ape phylogeny with considerably higher support and strengthening the inferred relationships among basal hominins. Interestingly, however, the inclusion of both extant and fossil outgroups reduced support for the crown hominid node. Our findings suggest that, in addition to improving character polarity estimation, including fossil outgroups generally strengthens confidence in relationships among extant hominoid and basal hominins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W Post
- Richard Gilder Graduate School, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY 10024-5192, USA; Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY 10024-5192, USA; New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP), New York, NY 10024, USA
| | - Christopher C Gilbert
- New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP), New York, NY 10024, USA; Department of Anthropology, Hunter College of the City University of New York, 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10065-5024, USA; PhD Program in Anthropology, Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 5th Ave, New York, NY 10016-4309, USA; Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY 10024-5192, USA
| | - Kelsey D Pugh
- Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY 10024-5192, USA; New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP), New York, NY 10024, USA; Department of Anthropology, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, 2900 Bedford Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11210, USA
| | - Carrie S Mongle
- Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY 10024-5192, USA; Department of Anthropology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-4364, USA; Turkana Basin Institute, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-4364, USA.
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2
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Kikuchi Y. Body mass estimates from postcranial skeletons and implication for positional behavior in Nacholapithecus kerioi: Evolutionary scenarios of modern apes. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2023; 306:2466-2483. [PMID: 36753432 DOI: 10.1002/ar.25173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
This study reported the body mass (BM) estimates of the Middle Miocene fossil hominoid Nacholapithecus kerioi from Africa. The average BM estimates from all forelimb and hindlimb skeletal elements was 22.7 kg, which is slightly higher than the previously reported estimate of ~22 kg. This study revealed that Nacholapithecus has a unique body proportion with an enlarged forelimb relative to a smaller hindlimb, suggesting an antipronograde posture/locomotion, which may be related to the long clavicle, robust ribs, and some hominoid-like vertebral morphology. Because the BM of Nacholapithecus in this study was estimated to be below 30 kg, Nacholapithecus probably did not have relatively shorter and robust femora, which may result from other mechanical constraints, as seen in extant African hominoids. The BM estimate of Nacholapithecus suggests that full substantial modifications of the trunk and forelimb anatomy for risk avoidance and foraging efficiency, as seen in extant great apes, would not be expected in Nacholapithecus. Because larger monkeys are less arboreal (e.g., Mandrillus sphinx or Papio spp.), and the maximum BM among extant constant arboreal cercopithecoids is ~24 kg (male Nasalis larvatus), Nacholapithecus would be a constant arboreal primate. Although caution should be applied because of targeting only males in this study, arboreal quadrupedalism with upright posture and occasional antipronograde locomotion (e.g., climbing, chambering, descending, arm-swing, and sway) using the powerful grasping capacity of the hand and foot may be assumed for positional behavior of Nacholapithecus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Kikuchi
- Division of Human Anatomy and Biological Anthropology, Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, Saga, Japan
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Urciuoli A, Alba DM. Systematics of Miocene apes: State of the art of a neverending controversy. J Hum Evol 2023; 175:103309. [PMID: 36716680 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2022.103309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Hominoids diverged from cercopithecoids during the Oligocene in Afro-Arabia, initially radiating in that continent and subsequently dispersing into Eurasia. From the Late Miocene onward, the geographic range of hominoids progressively shrank, except for hominins, which dispersed out of Africa during the Pleistocene. Although the overall picture of hominoid evolution is clear based on available fossil evidence, many uncertainties persist regarding the phylogeny and paleobiogeography of Miocene apes (nonhominin hominoids), owing to their sparse record, pervasive homoplasy, and the decimated current diversity of this group. We review Miocene ape systematics and evolution by focusing on the most parsimonious cladograms published during the last decade. First, we provide a historical account of the progress made in Miocene ape phylogeny and paleobiogeography, report an updated classification of Miocene apes, and provide a list of Miocene ape species-locality occurrences together with an analysis of their paleobiodiversity dynamics. Second, we discuss various critical issues of Miocene ape phylogeny and paleobiogeography (hylobatid and crown hominid origins, plus the relationships of Oreopithecus) in the light of the highly divergent results obtained from cladistic analyses of craniodental and postcranial characters separately. We conclude that cladistic efforts to disentangle Miocene ape phylogeny are potentially biased by a long-branch attraction problem caused by the numerous postcranial similarities shared between hylobatids and hominids-despite the increasingly held view that they are likely homoplastic to a large extent, as illustrated by Sivapithecus and Pierolapithecus-and further aggravated by abundant missing data owing to incomplete preservation. Finally, we argue that-besides the recovery of additional fossils, the retrieval of paleoproteomic data, and a better integration between cladistics and geometric morphometrics-Miocene ape phylogenetics should take advantage of total-evidence (tip-dating) Bayesian methods of phylogenetic inference combining morphologic, molecular, and chronostratigraphic data. This would hopefully help ascertain whether hylobatid divergence was more basal than currently supported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Urciuoli
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de la UAB, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain; Division of Palaeoanthropology, Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum Frankfurt, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Edifici ICTA-ICP, c/ Columnes s/n, Campus de la UAB, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - David M Alba
- Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Edifici ICTA-ICP, c/ Columnes s/n, Campus de la UAB, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain.
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Lautenschlager S. Reconstructing the past: methods and techniques for the digital restoration of fossils. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2016; 3:160342. [PMID: 27853548 PMCID: PMC5098973 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
During fossilization, the remains of extinct organisms are subjected to taphonomic and diagenetic processes. As a result, fossils show a variety of preservational artefacts, which can range from small breaks and cracks, disarticulation and fragmentation, to the loss and deformation of skeletal structures and other hard parts. Such artefacts can present a considerable problem, as the preserved morphology of fossils often forms the basis for palaeontological research. Phylogenetic and taxonomic studies, inferences on appearance, ecology and behaviour and functional analyses of fossil organisms strongly rely on morphological information. As a consequence, the restoration of fossil morphology is often a necessary prerequisite for further analyses. Facilitated by recent computational advances, virtual reconstruction and restoration techniques offer versatile tools to restore the original morphology of fossils. Different methodological steps and approaches, as well as software are outlined and reviewed here, and advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Although the complexity of the restorative processes can introduce a degree of interpretation, digitally restored fossils can provide useful morphological information and can be used to obtain functional estimates. Additionally, the digital nature of the restored models can open up possibilities for education and outreach and further research.
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Hunt KD. Why are there apes? Evidence for the co-evolution of ape and monkey ecomorphology. J Anat 2016; 228:630-85. [PMID: 27004976 PMCID: PMC4804131 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Apes, members of the superfamily Hominoidea, possess a distinctive suite of anatomical and behavioral characters which appear to have evolved relatively late and relatively independently. The timing of paleontological events, extant cercopithecine and hominoid ecomorphology and other evidence suggests that many distinctive ape features evolved to facilitate harvesting ripe fruits among compliant terminal branches in tree edges. Precarious, unpredictably oriented, compliant supports in the canopy periphery require apes to maneuver using suspensory and non-sterotypical postures (i.e. postures with eccentric limb orientations or extreme joint excursions). Diet differences among extant species, extant species numbers and evidence of cercopithecoid diversification and expansion, in concert with a reciprocal decrease in hominoid species, suggest intense competition between monkeys and apes over the last 20 Ma. It may be that larger body masses allow great apes to succeed in contest competitions for highly desired food items, while the ability of monkeys to digest antifeedant-rich unripe fruits allows them to win scramble competitions. Evolutionary trends in morphology and inferred ecology suggest that as monkeys evolved to harvest fruit ever earlier in the fruiting cycle they broadened their niche to encompass first more fibrous, tannin- and toxin-rich unripe fruits and later, for some lineages, mature leaves. Early depletion of unripe fruit in the central core of the tree canopy by monkeys leaves a hollow sphere of ripening fruits, displacing antifeedant-intolerant, later-arriving apes to small-diameter, compliant terminal branches. Hylobatids, orangutans, Pan species, gorillas and the New World atelines may have each evolved suspensory behavior independently in response to local competition from an expanding population of monkeys. Genetic evidence of rapid evolution among chimpanzees suggests that adaptations to suspensory behavior, vertical climbing, knuckle-walking, consumption of terrestrial piths and intercommunity violence had not yet evolved or were still being refined when panins (chimpanzees and bonobos) and hominins diverged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin D Hunt
- Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
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6
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Smaers JB, Mongle CS, Kandler A. A multiple variance Brownian motion framework for estimating variable rates and inferring ancestral states. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen B. Smaers
- Department of Anthropology; Stony Brook University; Circle Rd, Stony Brook NY 11794-4364 USA
- Department of Anthropology; University College London; 14 Taviton Street London WC1H 0BW UK
- Research Department of Genetics; Evolution and Environment; University College London; Gower Street London WC1E 6BT UK
| | - Carrie S. Mongle
- Department of Anthropology; Stony Brook University; Circle Rd, Stony Brook NY 11794-4364 USA
| | - Anne Kandler
- Department of Mathematics; City University London; Northampton Square; London EC1V 0HB UK
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Hogg RT, Godfrey LR, Schwartz GT, Dirks W, Bromage TG. Lemur Biorhythms and Life History Evolution. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0134210. [PMID: 26267241 PMCID: PMC4534448 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal histology supports the hypothesis that primate life histories are regulated by a neuroendocrine rhythm, the Havers-Halberg Oscillation (HHO). Interestingly, subfossil lemurs are outliers in HHO scaling relationships that have been discovered for haplorhine primates and other mammals. We present new data to determine whether these species represent the general lemur or strepsirrhine condition and to inform models about neuroendocrine-mediated life history evolution. We gathered the largest sample to date of HHO data from histological sections of primate teeth (including the subfossil lemurs) to assess the relationship of these chronobiological measures with life history-related variables including body mass, brain size, age at first female reproduction, and activity level. For anthropoids, these variables show strong correlations with HHO conforming to predictions, though body mass and endocranial volume are strongly correlated with HHO periodicity in this group. However, lemurs (possibly excepting Daubentonia) do not follow this pattern and show markedly less variability in HHO periodicity and lower correlation coefficients and slopes. Moreover, body mass is uncorrelated, and brain size and activity levels are more strongly correlated with HHO periodicity in these animals. We argue that lemurs evolved this pattern due to selection for risk-averse life histories driven by the unpredictability of the environment in Madagascar. These results reinforce the idea that HHO influences life history evolution differently in response to specific ecological selection regimes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell T. Hogg
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, Florida, United States of America
| | - Laurie R. Godfrey
- Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Gary T. Schwartz
- Institute of Human Origins and School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Wendy Dirks
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy G. Bromage
- Department of Biomaterials and Biomimetics, and Department of Basic Science and Craniofacial Biology, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, New York, United States of America
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8
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Gonzales LA, Benefit BR, McCrossin ML, Spoor F. Cerebral complexity preceded enlarged brain size and reduced olfactory bulbs in Old World monkeys. Nat Commun 2015; 6:7580. [PMID: 26138795 PMCID: PMC4506532 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms8580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Analysis of the only complete early cercopithecoid (Old World monkey) endocast currently known, that of 15-million-year (Myr)-old Victoriapithecus, reveals an unexpectedly small endocranial volume (ECV) relative to body size and a large olfactory bulb volume relative to ECV, similar to extant lemurs and Oligocene anthropoids. However, the Victoriapithecus brain has principal and arcuate sulci of the frontal lobe not seen in the stem catarrhine Aegyptopithecus, as well as a distinctive cercopithecoid pattern of gyrification, indicating that cerebral complexity preceded encephalization in cercopithecoids. Since larger ECVs, expanded frontal lobes, and reduced olfactory bulbs are already present in the 17- to 18-Myr-old ape Proconsul these features evolved independently in hominoids (apes) and cercopithecoids and much earlier in the former. Moreover, the order of encephalization and brain reorganization was apparently different in hominoids and cercopithecoids, showing that brain size and cerebral organization evolve independently. The evolution of the brain in Old World monkeys (cercopithecoids) is poorly understood. Here the authors describe a complete endocast of Victoriapithecus, a 15 Myr old cercopithecoid, which shows that the brain size was much smaller and the olfactory bulbs much larger than in any extant catarrhine primate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A Gonzales
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, 104 Biological Sciences Building, Box 90383, Durham, North Carolina 27708-9976, USA
| | - Brenda R Benefit
- Department of Anthropology, New Mexico State University, PO Box 30001, Las Cruces, New Mexico 88003-8001, USA
| | - Monte L McCrossin
- Department of Anthropology, New Mexico State University, PO Box 30001, Las Cruces, New Mexico 88003-8001, USA
| | - Fred Spoor
- 1] Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig 04103, Germany [2] Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, UCL, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
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9
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Pickford M, Senut B, Gommery D, Musiime E. Distinctiveness of Ugandapithecus from Proconsul. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.3989/egeol.39926.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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10
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Finarelli JA. ESTIMATION OF ENDOCRANIAL VOLUME THROUGH THE USE OF EXTERNAL SKULL MEASURES IN THE CARNIVORA (MAMMALIA). J Mammal 2006. [DOI: 10.1644/05-mamm-a-430r1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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11
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Ogihara N, Nakatsukasa M, Nakano Y, Ishida H. Computerized restoration of nonhomogeneous deformation of a fossil cranium based on bilateral symmetry. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2006; 130:1-9. [PMID: 16353222 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
We developed a computerized method of correcting plastic deformation of a fossil skull, based on bilateral symmetry with respect to the midsagittal plane, and applied this method to reconstruction of a fossilized Proconsul heseloni cranium (KNM-RU-7290A). A three-dimensional (3D) model of the fossil was generated using consecutive cross-sectional images retrieved from computed tomography. 3D coordinates of anatomical landmarks that should be located on the midsagittal plane and pairs of landmarks that should be symmetrical with respect to this plane were acquired. These landmarks were then repositioned so that geometrical constraints were satisfied, while translated distances of landmarks were minimized. We adopted a thin-plate spline function to mathematically describe the 3D nonlinear volumetric transformation between acquired and repositioned landmarks. Using this function, the entire fossil shape was transformed, and the effect of reversing the deformation could be visualized. The results indicated that the proposed method was effective in eliminating nonhomogeneous deformation of the fossil skull. The antemortem appearance of the skull cannot be completely restored by this method alone, due to methodological limitations. However, the presented method has a role as an adjunct in complementing conventional restoration techniques on account of its objective nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomichi Ogihara
- Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-oiwakecho, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan.
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Gilbert SL, Dobyns WB, Lahn BT. Genetic links between brain development and brain evolution. Nat Rev Genet 2005; 6:581-90. [PMID: 15951746 DOI: 10.1038/nrg1634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The most defining biological attribute of Homo sapiens is its enormous brain size and accompanying cognitive prowess. How this was achieved by means of genetic changes over the course of human evolution has fascinated biologists and the general public alike. Recent studies have shown that genes controlling brain development - notably those implicated in microcephaly (a congenital defect that is characterized by severely reduced brain size) - are favoured targets of natural selection during human evolution. We propose that genes that regulate brain size during development, such as microcephaly genes, are chief contributors in driving the evolutionary enlargement of the human brain. Based on the synthesis of recent studies, we propose a general methodological template for the genetic analysis of human evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra L Gilbert
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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Correia HR, Balseiro SC, de Areia ML. Are genes of human intelligence related to the metabolism of thyroid and steroids hormones? – Endocrine changes may explain human evolution and higher intelligence. Med Hypotheses 2005; 65:1016-23. [PMID: 16122877 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2005.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2005] [Accepted: 07/08/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We propose the hypothesis that genes of human intelligence are related with metabolism of thyroid and steroids hormones, which have a crucial role in brain development and function. First, there is evidence to support the idea that during hominid evolution small genetic differences were related with significant endocrine changes in thyroid and steroids hormones. Second, these neuroactive hormones are also related with unique features of human evolution such as body and brain size increase, penis and breast enlargement, pelvic sexual dimorphism, active sexuality, relative lack of hair and higher longevity. Besides underling many of the differences between humans and great apes, steroids hormones promote brain growth and development, are important in the myelination process, explain sexual dimorphisms in brain and intelligence and improve specific cognitive abilities in humans. Supporting our hypothesis, recent studies indicate differences in neuroactive hormones metabolism between humans and non-human primates. Furthermore, a link between X chromosome genes and sex steroids may explain why the frequency of genes affecting intelligence is so high on the X chromosome. This association suggests that, during hominid evolution, there was a positive feedback in both sexes on the same genes responsible for secondary sexual character development and intelligence. This interaction leads to acceleration of development of human brain and intelligence. Finally, we propose that neuroactive hormone therapy may provide significant improvement in some cognitive deficits in all stages of human life and in cases of neurodegenerative diseases. However, further investigation is needed, mainly in the enzymatic machinery, in order to understand the direct role of these hormones in intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- H R Correia
- Department of Anthropology, University of Coimbra, Rua Paulo Quintela, 329, Lote 7, 3A. 3030 393 Coimbra, Portugal.
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Dorus S, Vallender EJ, Evans PD, Anderson JR, Gilbert SL, Mahowald M, Wyckoff GJ, Malcom CM, Lahn BT. Accelerated Evolution of Nervous System Genes in the Origin of Homo sapiens. Cell 2004; 119:1027-40. [PMID: 15620360 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 303] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2004] [Revised: 08/18/2004] [Accepted: 10/20/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Human evolution is characterized by a dramatic increase in brain size and complexity. To probe its genetic basis, we examined the evolution of genes involved in diverse aspects of nervous system biology. We found that these genes display significantly higher rates of protein evolution in primates than in rodents. Importantly, this trend is most pronounced for the subset of genes implicated in nervous system development. Moreover, within primates, the acceleration of protein evolution is most prominent in the lineage leading from ancestral primates to humans. Thus, the remarkable phenotypic evolution of the human nervous system has a salient molecular correlate, i.e., accelerated evolution of the underlying genes, particularly those linked to nervous system development. In addition to uncovering broad evolutionary trends, our study also identified many candidate genes--most of which are implicated in regulating brain size and behavior--that might have played important roles in the evolution of the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Dorus
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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15
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Ruff CB. Long bone articular and diaphyseal structure in Old World monkeys and apes. II: Estimation of body mass. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2003; 120:16-37. [PMID: 12489135 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.10118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Body mass estimation equations are generated from long bone cross-sectional diaphyseal and articular surface dimensions in 176 individuals and 12 species of hominoids and cercopithecoids. A series of comparisons is carried out to determine the best body mass predictors for each of several taxonomic/locomotor groupings. Articular breadths are better predictors than articular surface areas, while cross-sectional shaft strengths are better predictors than shaft external breadths. Percent standard errors of estimate (%SEEs) and percent prediction errors for most of the better predictors range between 10-20%. Confidence intervals of equations using sex/species means are fairly representative of those calculated using individual data, except for sex/species means equations with very low %SEEs (under about 10%), where confidence intervals (CIs) based on individuals are likely to be larger. Given individual variability, or biological "error," this may represent a lower limit of precision in estimating individual body masses. In general, it is much more preferable to determine at least broad locomotor affinities, and thus appropriate modern reference groups, before applying body mass estimation equations. However, some structural dimensions are less sensitive to locomotor distinctions than others; for example, proximal tibial articular M-L breadth is apparently "locomotor blind" regarding body mass estimation within the present study sample. In other cases where locomotor affiliation is uncertain, mean estimates from different reference groups can be used, while for some dimensions no estimation should be attempted. The techniques are illustrated by estimating the body masses of four fossil anthropoid specimens of Proconsul nyanzae, Proconsul heseloni, Morotopithecus bishopi, and Theropithecus oswaldi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher B Ruff
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1830 E. Monument Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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Abstract
One of the distinguishing features of Homo sapiens is its absolutely and relatively large brain. This feature is also seen in less extreme form in some fossil Homo species. However, are increases in brain size during the Plio-Pleistocene only seen in Homo, and is brain enlargement among Plio-Pleistocene primates confined to hominins? This study examines evidence for changes in brain size for species and lineage samples of three synchronic East African fossil primate groups, the two hominin genera Homo and Paranthropus, and the cercopithecoid genus Theropithecus. Hominin endocranial capacity data were taken from the literature, but it was necessary to develop an indirect method for estimating the endocranial volume of Theropithecus. Bivariate and multivariate regression equations relating measured endocranial volume to three external cranial dimensions were developed from a large (ca. 340) sample of modern African cercopithecoids. These equations were used to estimate the endocranial volumes of 20 Theropithecus specimens from the African Plio-Pleistocene. Spearman's rho and the Hubert nonparametric test were used to search for evidence of temporal trends in both the hominin and Theropithecus data. Endocranial volume apparently increased over time in both Homo and Paranthropus boisei, but there was no evidence for temporal trends in the endocranial volume of Theropithecus. Thus, hypotheses which suggest a mix of environmental, social, dietary, or other factors as catalysts for increasing brain in Plio-Pleistocene primates must accommodate evidence of brain enlargement in both Homo and Paranthropus, and explain why this phenomenon appears to be restricted to hominins.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Elton
- Department of Anthropology, Eliot College, University of Kent at Canterbury, Canterbury CT2 7NS, U.K.
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Beynon AD, Dean MC, Leakey MG, Reid DJ, Walker A. Comparative dental development and microstructure of Proconsul teeth from Rusinga Island, Kenya. J Hum Evol 1998; 35:163-209. [PMID: 9719994 DOI: 10.1006/jhev.1998.0230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Eighteen histological sections were prepared from eleven teeth attributed to Proconsul heseloni and two molar teeth attributed to Proconsul nyanzae. Measurements of spacings and counts of daily incremental markings in both enamel and dentine were possible in the majority of these tooth sections. Measurements of the spacings and angles to the enamel dentine junction (EDJ) of regular striae of Retzius and of equivalent markings in dentine were also made. In addition to these measurements, counts of perikymata were made on replicas of all other Proconsul teeth housed in the National Museum of Kenya, Nairobi, that preserved good perikymata on any aspect of their tooth surface. The sequence of crown formation in Proconsul and the crown formation times of the enamel and dentine were estimated from these data. In addition, the rates of root extension were estimated using the formula derived for this purpose by Shellis (Archs. oral Biol. 29, 697-705, 1984) and estimates of the total period of root formation subsequently made for premolar and molar teeth based on measurements of root length. A composite chart of dental development for P. heseloni is presented which suggests M3 root completion was between six and seven years of age. In general Proconsul molar teeth have high stria angles to the EDJ, a high ratio of enamel formed with respect of dentine formed at the same time, median values of rates of enamel formation close to the EDJ in excess of 4 microns per day and the occasional presence of "S-shaped" striae in the lateral enamel. There is no evidence to suggest that Proconsul from Rusinga Island, Kenya, had relatively thin enamel on molar or premolar teeth. When all of these data are considered in a comparative context, Proconsul emerges overall as hominoid-like in its enamel and dentine microstructure and as most similar to Pongo but with some features shared with Pan and Homo. Similar data for other Miocene primates will have considerable bearing on how these data are interpreted. These new data on dental microanatomy and on dental development in Proconsul make a further contribution to our understanding of the total morphological picture of this early Miocene primate.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Beynon
- Department of Oral Biology, Dental School, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K.
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Kordos L, Begun DR. A new reconstruction of RUD 77, a partial cranium of Dryopithecus brancoi from Rudabánya, Hungary. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 1997; 103:277-94. [PMID: 9209582 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199706)103:2<277::aid-ajpa10>3.0.co;2-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
A newly reconstructed cranium (RUD 77) of the Miocene fossil hominoid Dryopithecus, formerly Rudapithecus (Kretzoi [1969] Symp. Biol. Hung. 9:3-11; Begun and Kordos [1993] J. Hum. Evol. 25:271-286) is presented here. This specimen, from the late Miocene locality of Rudabánya, in northeastern Hungary, consists of portions of the neurocranium, face, and postcanine dentition. Newly recovered portions of the parietal, occipital, temporal, zygomatic, and premaxillary bones, which are described here for the first time, in association with previously described portions of this specimen (Kordos [1987] Ann. Hist. Nat. Mus. Natl. Hung. 79:77-88) make RUD 77 among the most complete and well preserved neurocrania of any Miocene hominoid. Detailed anatomical descriptions and measurements are provided here, along with comparisons to other relatively complete Miocene hominoid cranial remains, and to living hominoids. While a more complete phylogenetic analysis is in preparation based on the sample as a whole, it is suggested here that RUD 77 provides some additional evidence in support of a previous hypothesis that Dryopithecus is more closely related to the African apes and humans than is Sivapithecus.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Kordos
- Geological Institute of Hungary, Budapest, Hungary
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Simons EL, Rasmussen DT. Skull of Catopithecus browni, an early tertiary catarrhine. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 1996; 100:261-92. [PMID: 8771315 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199606)100:2<261::aid-ajpa7>3.0.co;2-#] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Fossil crania from quarry L-41, Fayum, Egypt, representing Catopithecus browni, a primate similar in size to callitrichids but with a catarrhine dental formula, provide the geologically earliest record of an anthropoidean skull. Catopithecus had postorbital closure developed to the stage seen in extant anthropoideans, with direct contact between zygomatic plate and maxillary tuber, isolating an anterior orbital fissure from the inferior orbital fissure. The auditory region also resembles that of later anthropoideans: The posterior carotid foramen is placed adjacent to the jugular fossa; a large promontory canal crosses the promontorium; and the annular ectotympanic is fused ventrally to the bulla. The incisors and canines show an assemblage of features found only among modern anthropoideans and adapoids. The face is characterized by a relatively deep maxilla, broad ascending wing of the premaxilla, and long nasal bones, yielding a moderate muzzle similar to that of Aegyptopithecus. The small braincase bears an anteriorly broad frontal trigon and a posteriorly developed sagittal crest. The mandibular symphysis is unfused even in mature adults. The encephalization quotient (EQ) probably falls within the range of Eocene prosimians, much lower than the EQs of Neogene anthropoideans.
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Affiliation(s)
- E L Simons
- Department of Biological Anthropology and Anatomy, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27705, USA
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22
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Begun DR. Relations among the great apes and humans: New interpretations based on the fossil great apeDryopithecus. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 1994. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.1330370604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Benefit BR, McCrossin ML. Facial anatomy of Victoriapithecus and its relevance to the ancestral cranial morphology of Old World monkeys and apes. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 1993; 92:329-70. [PMID: 8291621 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.1330920307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Recently discovered craniofacial fossils of the middle Miocene cercopithecoid Victoriapithecus are described. The frontal, zygomatic, maxilla, and premaxilla anatomy differ from the previously proposed colobine-like ancestral cercopithecoid morphotype in several significant respects. This morphotype was based on the assumption that features held in common by subordinate hominoid and cercopithecoid morphotypes (Colobinae and Hylobatidae) are primitive for Old World monkeys. Cranial similarities between Victoriapithecus, which represents the sister-group of both colobine and cercopithecine monkeys, and the shorter-snouted Cercopithecinae (Macaca and Cercopithecus) indicate that the last common ancestor of Old World monkeys possessed the following features: a narrow interorbital septum, moderately long snout, moderately long and anteriorly tapering premaxilla, large procumbent upper central incisors set anterior to and with longer roots than lateral incisors, moderately tall face below the orbits, teardrop-shaped nasal aperture of low height and moderate width, and probably long and narrow nasal bones. The Victoriapithecus cranium is also characterized by features not present in modern cercopithecids. These include a deep malar region of the zygomatic and the presence of a frontal trigon due to the occurrence of temporal lines that merge with supraorbital costae close to the midline of each orbit and converge anterior to bregma. These features are interpreted as primitive retentions from the basal catarrhine condition as indicated by the occurrence of these features among primitive catarrhines (Aegyptopithecus) and Miocene hominoids (Afropithecus).
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Affiliation(s)
- B R Benefit
- Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale 62901
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Abstract
Between 10 and 20 million years ago, a variety of hominoid primates lived in Africa, Europe and Asia. The question of which of these, if any, lie closest to the ancestries of humans and modern apes remains a lively source of debate. Recent fossil discoveries, though, shed light on the environments in which the various groups of hominoid emerged and, it is hoped, on their evolution. But the lack of a hominid fossil record before about 5 million years ago--and any fossil record for the African apes--is still a frustrating barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Andrews
- Department of Palaeontology, Natural History Museum, London, UK
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Ruff CB, Walker A, Teaford MF. Body mass, sexual dimorphism and femoral proportions of Proconsul from Rusinga and Mfangano Islands, Kenya. J Hum Evol 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0047-2484(89)90016-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Teaford MF, Beard K, Leakey RE, Walker A. New hominoid facial skeleton from the Early Miocene of Rusinga Island, Kenya, and its bearing on the relationship between Proconsul nyanzae and Proconsul africanus. J Hum Evol 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/0047-2484(88)90036-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Shea BT. On aspects of skull form in African apes and orangutans, with implications for hominoid evolution. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 1985; 68:329-42. [PMID: 3933361 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.1330680304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The study of hominoid phylogeny is currently in a state of controversy and debate due to the discovery of new fossil material and reanalysis of the morphology of extant apes. An important key to the resolution of these debates lies in attaining a fuller understanding of the morphological differences in skull form between the African and Asian great apes. In this paper I have analyzed aspects of facial morphology and internal cranial anatomy in the great apes. Results from this study and previous ones suggest that Pongo is characterized by a marked dorsal deflection of the face relative to the basicranium. Many aspects of circumorbital, midfacial, palatal, and mandibular morphology in Pongo may be related to this airorynchous condition. This hypothesis is supported by Enlow's work on form and pattern in the primate and mammalian skull. The position of the face in known Sivapithecus appears to be similar to that seen in Pongo. Although Pongo may be specialized in its marked degree of airorynchy, it seems likely that an important derived feature linking African apes and hominids is a ventral rotation of the splanchnocranium on the neurocranium. The appearance of marked supraorbital tori and ethmofrontal sinuses are probably correlated developments. Additional implications of this work for debates about hominoid phylogeny are discussed.
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