Elasticity of forsterite to 16 GPa and the composition of the upper mantle

Simultaneous high-pressure high-temperature elastic velocity measurement system up to 27 GPa and 1873 K using ultrasonic and synchrotron X-ray techniques

A new pulse-echo interferometry system has been developed for measurements of sound velocity at simultaneous high pressure and temperature corresponding to those of the Earth's lower mantle, using synchrotron X-ray techniques at SPring-8. A combination of a low-noise high-frequency amplifier and a high-speed solid-state relay system allowed us to clearly detect the ultrasonic echoes of a small sample (<1.0 mm in diameter and length) in multi-anvil apparatus. A new high-pressure cell has also been introduced for precise measurement of the length of the tiny sample by X-ray radiography imaging under very high pressure and temperature. The new system was tested by measuring elastic velocities of α-Al₂O₃ over wide pressure and temperature ranges of up to 27 GPa and 1873 K, respectively. The resultant adiabatic bulk modulus, shear modulus, and pressure and temperature derivatives of α-Al₂O₃ are K_0S = 251.2 (18) GPa, ∂K_S/∂P = 4.21 (10), ∂K_S/∂T = -0.025 (1), G = 164.1 (7), ∂G/∂P = 1.59 (3), ∂G/∂T = -0.021 (1). These values are consistent with those previously reported based on experiments at high temperatures at ambient pressure and high pressures at room temperature. The present system allows precise measurements of the elastic velocities of minerals under the pressures and temperatures corresponding to the lower mantle for the first time, which should greatly contribute to our understanding of mineralogy of the whole mantle.

Shear Brillouin light scattering microscope

Brillouin spectroscopy has been used to characterize shear acoustic phonons in materials. However, conventional instruments had slow acquisition times over 10 min per 1 mW of input optical power, and they required two objective lenses to form a 90° scattering geometry necessary for polarization coupling by shear phonons. Here, we demonstrate a confocal Brillouin microscope capable of detecting both shear and longitudinal phonons with improved speeds and with a single objective lens. Brillouin scattering spectra were measured from polycarbonate, fused quartz, and borosilicate in 1-10 s at an optical power level of 10 mW. The elastic constants, phonon mean free path and the ratio of the Pockels coefficients were determined at microscopic resolution.

Mineral phases of the Earth´s mantle

Our knowledge of the structure of the Earth´s interior has been obtained by analysing seismic waves that travel in the Earth, and the reference Earth global models used by geophysicists are essentially seismological. Depth profiles of the seismic waves velocities reveal that the deep Earth is divided in several shells, separated by velocity and density discontinuities. The main discontinuity located at a depth of 2900 km corresponds to the transition between the mantle and the core. The Earth´s mantle can be further divided into the upper mantle and the lower mantle, with a transition zone characterised by two prominent increases in velocities observed at 410- and 660-km depths. This article will be focused on the mineral phases of the Earth´s mantle. The interpretation of seismological models in terms of chemical composition and temperature relies on the knowledge of the nature, structure and elastic properties of the candidate materials. We will describe to what extent recent advances in experimental mineral physics and X-ray diffraction have yielded essential knowledge on the structure and high-pressure high-temperature behaviour of pertinent materials, and major improvements in our understanding of the chemical and mineralogical composition of the Earth´s mantle.

Some recent advances in understanding the mineralogy of Earth's deep mantle

Understanding planetary structure and evolution requires a detailed knowledge of the properties of geological materials under the conditions of deep planetary interiors. Experiments under the extreme pressure-temperature conditions of the deep mantle are challenging, and many fundamental properties remain poorly constrained or are inferred only through uncertain extrapolations from lower pressure-temperature states. Nevertheless, the last several years have witnessed a number of new developments in this area, and a broad overview of the current understanding of the Earth's lower mantle is presented here. Some recent experimental and theoretical advances related to the lowermost mantle are highlighted. Measurements of the equation of state and deformation behaviour of (Mg,Fe)SiO3 in the CaIrO3-type (post-perovskite) structure yield insights into the nature of the core-mantle boundary region. Theoretical studies of the behaviour of MgSiO3 liquids under high pressure-temperature conditions provide constraints on melt volumes, diffusivities and viscosities that are relevant to understanding both the early Earth (e.g. deep magma oceans) and seismic structure observed in the present Earth (e.g. ultra-low-velocity zones).

Sound velocities of majorite garnet and the composition of the mantle transition region

The composition of the mantle transition region, characterized by anomalous seismic-wave velocity and density changes at depths of approximately 400 to 700 km, has remained controversial. Some have proposed that the mantle transition region has an olivine-rich 'pyrolite' composition, whereas others have inferred that it is characterized by pyroxene- and garnet-rich compositions ('piclogite'), because the sound velocities in pyrolite estimated from laboratory data are substantially higher than those seismologically observed. Although the velocities of the olivine polymorphs at these pressures (wadsleyite and ringwoodite) have been well documented, those of majorite (another significant high-pressure phase in the mantle transition region) with realistic mantle compositions have never been measured. Here we use combined in situ X-ray and ultrasonic measurements under the pressure and temperature conditions of the mantle transition region to show that majorite in a pyrolite composition has sound velocities substantially lower than those of earlier estimates, owing to strong nonlinear decreases at high temperature, particularly for shear-wave velocity. We found that pyrolite yields seismic velocities more consistent with typical seismological models than those of piclogite in the upper to middle parts of the region, except for the potentially larger velocity jumps in pyrolite relative to those observed at a depth of 410 km. In contrast, both of these compositions lead to significantly low shear-wave velocities in the lower part of the region, suggesting possible subadiabatic temperatures or the existence of a layer of harzburgite-rich material supplied by the subducted slabs stagnant at these depths.

Indoor seismology by probing the Earth's interior by using sound velocity measurements at high pressures and temperatures

The adiabatic bulk (K(S)) and shear (G) moduli of mantle materials at high pressure and temperature can be obtained directly by measuring compressional and shear wave velocities in the laboratory with experimental techniques based on physical acoustics. We present the application of the current state-of-the-art experimental techniques by using ultrasonic interferometry in conjunction with synchrotron x radiation to study the elasticity of olivine and pyroxenes and their high-pressure phases. By using these updated thermoelasticity data for these phases, velocity and density profiles for a pyrolite model are constructed and compared with radial seismic models. We conclude that pyrolite provides an adequate explanation of the major seismic discontinuities at 410- and 660-km depths, the gradient in the transition zone, as well as the velocities in the lower mantle, if the uncertainties in the modeling and the variations in different seismic models are considered. The characteristics of the seismic scaling factors in response to thermal anomalies suggest that anticorrelations between bulk sound and shear wave velocities, as well as the large positive density anomalies observed in the lower mantle, cannot be explained fully without invoking chemical variations.

Insights into the nature of the transition zone from physically constrained inversion of long-period seismic data

Imposing a thermal and compositional significance to the outcome of the inversion of seismic data facilitates their interpretation. Using long-period seismic waveforms and an inversion approach that includes constraints from mineral physics, we find that lateral variations of temperature can explain a large part of the data in the upper mantle. The additional compositional signature of cratons emerges in the global model as well. Above 300 km, we obtain seismic geotherms that span the range of expected temperatures in various tectonic regions. Absolute velocities and gradients with depth are well constrained by the seismic data throughout the upper mantle, except near discontinuities. The seismic data are consistent with a slower transition zone and an overall faster shallow upper mantle, which is not compatible with a homogenous dry pyrolite composition. A gradual enrichment with depth in a garnet-rich component helps to reduce the observed discrepancies. A hydrated transition zone would help to lower the velocities in the transition zone, but it does not explain the seismic structure above it.

Elastic moduli of wadsleyite (beta-Mg2SiO4) to 7 gigapascals and 873 kelvin

Simultaneous sound velocity measurements and x-ray diffraction studies were made on wadsleyite (beta-Mg2SiO4) to 7 gigapascals and 873 kelvin. The calculated adiabatic bulk (K) and shear (G) moduli yield K (at room conditions) = 172(2) gigapascals, dK/dP = 4.2(1), and dK/dT = -0.012(1) gigapascals per kelvin, and G (at room conditions) = 113(1) gigapascals, dG/dP = 1.5(1), and dG/dT = -0. 017(1) gigapascals per kelvin, respectively. The data imply that the P and S wave velocity contrasts between olivine and wadsleyite require an olivine amount of 38 to 39 percent in the upper mantle to satisfy the observed 410-kilometer discontinuity, but 55 to 60 percent to account for the velocity increase through the transition zone.

Electrical conductivity of olivine, wadsleyite, and ringwoodite under upper-mantle conditions

Geophysical models show that electrical conductivity in Earth's mantle rises about two orders of magnitude through the transition zone in the depth range 410 to 660 kilometers. Impedance measurements obtained on Mg1.8Fe0.2SiO4 olivine, wadsleyite, and ringwoodite at up to 20 gigapascals and 1400 degreesC show that the electrical conductivities of wadsleyite and ringwoodite are similar and are almost two orders of magnitude higher than that of olivine. A conductivity-depth profile to 660 kilometers, based on these laboratory data, shows a conductivity increase of almost two orders of magnitude across the 410-kilometer discontinuity; such a profile favors a two-layer model for the upper mantle. Activation enthalpies of 1.2 to 1.7 electron volts permit appreciable lateral variations of conductivity with lateral temperature variations.

Selected Elastic Moduli of Single-Crystal Olivines from Ultrasonic Experiments to Mantle Pressures

Ultrasonic interferometric measurements, developed for polycrystalline samples in a multi-anvil apparatus, were extended to single-crystal samples of San Carlos olivine and forsterite. The elastic moduli, C22 and C55 of San Carlos olivine and C55 of pure forsterite, were measured to about 13 gigapascals. These data on C22 for San Carlos olivine and C55 for forsterite are consistent with earlier measurements and extrapolations. The C55 for San Carlos olivine increases linearly as a function of increasing pressure, unlike the earlier nonlinear behavior observed at high pressure with impulsive stimulated scattering techniques.