Smart nanoparticles improve therapy for drug-resistant tumors by overcoming pathophysiological barriers

Using nanotechnology to progress the utilization of marine natural products in combating multidrug resistance in cancer: A prospective strategy

Achieving targeted, customized, and combination therapies with clarity of the involved molecular pathways is crucial in the treatment as well as overcoming multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer. Nanotechnology has emerged as an innovative and promising approach to address the problem of drug resistance. Developing nano-formulation-based therapies using therapeutic agents poses a synergistic effect to overcome MDR in cancer. In this review, we aimed to highlight the important pathways involved in the progression of MDR in cancer mediated through nanotechnology-based approaches that have been employed to circumvent them in recent years. Here, we also discussed the potential use of marine metabolites to treat MDR in cancer, utilizing active drug-targeting nanomedicine-based techniques to enhance selective drug accumulation in cancer cells. The discussion also provides future insights for developing complex targeted, multistage responsive nanomedical drug delivery systems for effective cancer treatments. We propose more combinational studies and their validation for the possible marine-based nanoformulations for future development.

Reversal of cisplatin resistance in oral squamous cell carcinoma by piperlongumine loaded smart nanoparticles through inhibition of Hippo-YAP signaling pathway

Cisplatin alone or in combination with 5FU and docetaxel is the preferred chemotherapy regimen for advanced-stage OSCC patients. However, its use has been linked to recurrence and metastasis due to the development of drug resistance. Therefore, sensitization of cancer cells to conventional chemotherapeutics can be an effective strategy to overcome drug resistance. Piperlongumine (PL), an alkaloid, have shown anticancer properties and sensitizes numerous neoplasms, but its effect on OSCC has not been explored. However, low aqueous solubility and poor pharmacokinetics limit its clinical application. Therefore, to improve its therapeutic efficacy, we developed piperlongumine-loaded PLGA-based smart nanoparticles (smart PL-NPs) that can rapidly release PL in an acidic environment of cancer cells and provide optimum drug concentrations to overcome chemoresistance. Our results revealed that smart PL-NPs has high cellular uptake in acidic environment, facilitating the intracellular delivery of PL and sensitizing cancer cells to cisplatin, resulting in synergistic anticancer activity in vitro by increasing DNA damage, apoptosis, and inhibiting drug efflux. Further, we have mechanistically explored the Hippo-YAP signaling pathway, which is the critical mediator of chemoresistance, and investigated the chemosensitizing effect of PL in OSCC. We observed that PL alone and in combination with cisplatin significantly inhibits the activation of YAP and its downstream target genes and proteins. In addition, the combination of cisplatin with smart PL-NPs significantly inhibited tumor growth in two preclinical models (patient-derived cell based nude mice and zebrafish xenograft). Taken together, our findings suggest that smart PL-NPs with cisplatin will be a novel formulation to reverse cisplatin resistance in patients with advanced OSCC.

Anti-cancer bioactivity of sweet basil leaf derived extracellular vesicles on pancreatic cancer cells

Most living organisms secrete tiny lipid bilayer particles encapsulating various biomolecular entities, including nucleic acids and proteins. These secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) are shown to aid in communication between cells and their environment. EVs are mainly involved in the signalling and manipulation of physiological processes. Plant EVs display similar functional activity as seen in mammalian EVs. Medicinal plants have many bioactive constituents with potential applications in cancer treatment. Particularly, Basil (Ocimum basilicum), has wide therapeutic properties including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-infection, among others. In this study, we focused on using EVs purified from Apoplast Washing Fluid (AWF) of Basil plant leaves as a biological therapeutic agent against cancer. Characterization of Basil EVs revealed a size range of 100-250 nm, which were later assessed for their cell uptake and apoptosis inducing abilities in pancreatic cancer cells. Basil plant EVs (BasEVs) showed a significant cytotoxic effect on pancreatic cancer cell line MIA PaCa-2 at a concentration of 80 and 160 μg/mL in cell viability, as well as clonogenic assays. Similarly, RT-PCR and western blot analysis has shown up regulation in apoptotic gene and protein expression of Bax, respectively, in BasEV treatment groups compared to untreated controls of MIA PaCa-2. Overall, our results suggest that EVs from basil plants have potent anti-cancer effects in pancreatic cancer cells and can serve as a drug delivery system, demanding an investigation into the therapeutic potential of other medicinal plant EVs.

Recent advances in nano/micro systems for improved circulation stability, enhanced tumor targeting, penetration, and intracellular drug delivery: a review

In recent years, nanoparticles (NPs) have been extensively developed as drug carriers to overcome the limitations of cancer therapeutics. However, there are several biological barriers to nanomedicines, which include the lack of stability in circulation, limited target specificity, low penetration into tumors and insufficient cellular uptake, restricting the active targeting toward tumors of nanomedicines. To address these challenges, a variety of promising strategies were developed recently, as they can be designed to improve NP accumulation and penetration in tumor tissues, circulation stability, tumor targeting, and intracellular uptake. In this Review, we summarized nanomaterials developed in recent three years that could be utilized to improve drug delivery for cancer treatments.

Advances in the structure, mechanism and targeting of chemoresistance-linked ABC transporters

Cancer cells frequently display intrinsic or acquired resistance to chemically diverse anticancer drugs, limiting therapeutic success. Among the main mechanisms of this multidrug resistance is the overexpression of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters that mediate drug efflux, and, specifically, ABCB1, ABCG2 and ABCC1 are known to cause cancer chemoresistance. High-resolution structures, biophysical and in silico studies have led to tremendous progress in understanding the mechanism of drug transport by these ABC transporters, and several promising therapies, including irradiation-based immune and thermal therapies, and nanomedicine have been used to overcome ABC transporter-mediated cancer chemoresistance. In this Review, we highlight the progress achieved in the past 5 years on the three transporters, ABCB1, ABCG2 and ABCC1, that are known to be of clinical importance. We address the molecular basis of their broad substrate specificity gleaned from structural information and discuss novel approaches to block the function of ABC transporters. Furthermore, genetic modification of ABC transporters by CRISPR-Cas9 and approaches to re-engineer amino acid sequences to change the direction of transport from efflux to import are briefly discussed. We suggest that current information regarding the structure, mechanism and regulation of ABC transporters should be used in clinical trials to improve the efficiency of chemotherapeutics for patients with cancer.

Unleashing novel horizons in advanced prostate cancer treatment: investigating the potential of prostate specific membrane antigen-targeted nanomedicine-based combination therapy

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a prevalent malignancy with increasing incidence in middle-aged and older men. Despite various treatment options, advanced metastatic PCa remains challenging with poor prognosis and limited effective therapies. Nanomedicine, with its targeted drug delivery capabilities, has emerged as a promising approach to enhance treatment efficacy and reduce adverse effects. Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) stands as one of the most distinctive and highly selective biomarkers for PCa, exhibiting robust expression in PCa cells. In this review, we explore the applications of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines in advanced PCa management. Our primary objective is to bridge the gap between cutting-edge nanomedicine research and clinical practice, making it accessible to the medical community. We discuss mainstream treatment strategies for advanced PCa, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy, in the context of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines. Additionally, we elucidate novel treatment concepts such as photodynamic and photothermal therapies, along with nano-theragnostics. We present the content in a clear and accessible manner, appealing to general physicians, including those with limited backgrounds in biochemistry and bioengineering. The review emphasizes the potential benefits of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines in enhancing treatment efficiency and improving patient outcomes. While the use of PSMA-targeted nano-drug delivery has demonstrated promising results, further investigation is required to comprehend the precise mechanisms of action, pharmacotoxicity, and long-term outcomes. By meticulous optimization of the combination of nanomedicines and PSMA ligands, a novel horizon of PSMA-targeted nanomedicine-based combination therapy could bring renewed hope for patients with advanced PCa.

Unleashing novel horizons in advanced prostate cancer treatment: investigating the potential of prostate specific membrane antigen-targeted nanomedicine-based combination therapy

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a prevalent malignancy with increasing incidence in middle-aged and older men. Despite various treatment options, advanced metastatic PCa remains challenging with poor prognosis and limited effective therapies. Nanomedicine, with its targeted drug delivery capabilities, has emerged as a promising approach to enhance treatment efficacy and reduce adverse effects. Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) stands as one of the most distinctive and highly selective biomarkers for PCa, exhibiting robust expression in PCa cells. In this review, we explore the applications of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines in advanced PCa management. Our primary objective is to bridge the gap between cutting-edge nanomedicine research and clinical practice, making it accessible to the medical community. We discuss mainstream treatment strategies for advanced PCa, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy, in the context of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines. Additionally, we elucidate novel treatment concepts such as photodynamic and photothermal therapies, along with nano-theragnostics. We present the content in a clear and accessible manner, appealing to general physicians, including those with limited backgrounds in biochemistry and bioengineering. The review emphasizes the potential benefits of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines in enhancing treatment efficiency and improving patient outcomes. While the use of PSMA-targeted nano-drug delivery has demonstrated promising results, further investigation is required to comprehend the precise mechanisms of action, pharmacotoxicity, and long-term outcomes. By meticulous optimization of the combination of nanomedicines and PSMA ligands, a novel horizon of PSMA-targeted nanomedicine-based combination therapy could bring renewed hope for patients with advanced PCa.

Nanoparticle-Based Treatment Approaches for Skin Cancer: A Systematic Review

Nanoparticles have shown marked promise as both antineoplastic agents and drug carriers. Despite strides made in immunomodulation, low success rates and toxicity remain limitations within the clinical oncology setting. In the present review, we assess advances in drug delivery nanoparticles, for systemic and topical use, in skin cancer treatment. A systematic review of controlled trials, meta-analyses, and Cochrane review articles was conducted. Eligibility criteria included: (1) a primary focus on nanoparticle utility for skin cancer; (2) available metrics on prevention and treatment outcomes; (3) detailed subject population; (4) English language; (5) archived as full-text journal articles. A total of 43 articles were selected for review. Qualitative analysis revealed that nanoscale systems demonstrate significant antineoplastic and anti-metastasis properties: increased drug bioavailability, reduced toxicity, enhanced permeability and retention effect, as well as tumor growth inhibition, among others. Nanoformulations for skin cancers have largely lagged behind those tested in other cancers-several of which have commercialized formulae. However, emerging evidence has indicated a powerful role for these carriers in targeting primary and metastatic skin cancers.

Design strategy and research progress of multifunctional nanoparticles in lung cancer therapy

INTRODUCTION

Lung cancer is one of the cancer types with the highest mortality rate, exploring a more effective treatment modality that improves therapeutic efficacy while mitigating side effects is now an urgent requirement. Designing multifunctional nanoparticles can be used to overcome the limitations of drugs and conventional drug delivery systems. Nanotechnology has been widely researched, and through different needs, suitable nanocarriers can be selected to load anti-cancer drugs to improve the therapeutic effect. It is foreseeable that with the rapid development of nanotechnology, more and more lung cancer patients will benefit from nanotechnology. This paper reviews the merits of various multifunctional nanoparticles in the treatment of lung cancer to provide novel ideas for lung cancer treatment.

AREAS COVERED

This review focuses on summarizing various nanoparticles for targeted lung cancer therapy and their advantages and disadvantages, using nanoparticles loaded with anti-cancer drugs, delivered to lung cancer sites, enhancing drug half-life, improving anti-cancer drug efficacy and reducing side effects.

EXPERT OPINION

The delivery mode of nanoparticles with superior pharmacokinetic properties in the in vivo circulation enhances the half-life of the drug, and provides tissue-targeted selectivity and the ability to overcome biological barriers, bringing a revolution in the field of oncology.

Oxidative Stress-Induced Silver Nano-Carriers for Chemotherapy

Recently, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been extensively explored in a variety of biological applications, especially cancer treatment. AgNPs have been demonstrated to exhibit anti-tumor effects through cell apoptosis. This study intends to promote cell apoptosis further by increasing oxidative stress. AgNPs are encapsulated by biocompatible and biodegradable polyaspartamide (PA) (PA-AgNPs) that carries the anti-cancer drug Doxorubicin (Dox) to inhibit cancer cells primarily. PA-AgNPs have an average hydrodynamic diameter of 130 nm, allowing them to move flexibly within the body. PA-AgNPs show an excellent targeting capacity to cancer cells when they are conjugated to biotin. In addition, they release Dox efficiently by up to 88% in cancer environments. The DCFDA experiment demonstrates that the Dox-carried PA-AgNPs generate reactive oxidation species intensively beside 4T1 cells. The MTT experiment confirms that PA-AgNPs with Dox may strongly inhibit 4T1 cancer cells. Furthermore, the in vivo study confirms that PA-AgNPs with Dox successfully inhibit tumors, which are about four times smaller than the control group and have high biosafety that can be applied for chemotherapy.

Emerging nanotechnology-based therapeutics to combat multidrug-resistant cancer

Cancer often develops multidrug resistance (MDR) when cancer cells become resistant to numerous structurally and functionally different chemotherapeutic agents. MDR is considered one of the principal reasons for the failure of many forms of clinical chemotherapy. Several factors are involved in the development of MDR including increased expression of efflux transporters, the tumor microenvironment, changes in molecular targets and the activity of cancer stem cells. Recently, researchers have designed and developed a number of small molecule inhibitors and derivatives of natural compounds to overcome various mechanisms of clinical MDR. Unfortunately, most of the chemosensitizing approaches have failed in clinical trials due to non-specific interactions and adverse side effects at pharmacologically effective concentrations. Nanomedicine approaches provide an efficient drug delivery platform to overcome the limitations of conventional chemotherapy and improve therapeutic effectiveness. Multifunctional nanomaterials have been found to facilitate drug delivery by improving bioavailability and pharmacokinetics, enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs to overcome MDR. In this review article, we discuss the major factors contributing to MDR and the limitations of existing chemotherapy- and nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems to overcome clinical MDR mechanisms. We critically review recent nanotechnology-based approaches to combat tumor heterogeneity, drug efflux mechanisms, DNA repair and apoptotic machineries to overcome clinical MDR. Recent successful therapies of this nature include liposomal nanoformulations, cRGDY-PEG-Cy5.5-Carbon dots and Cds/ZnS core–shell quantum dots that have been employed for the effective treatment of various cancer sub-types including small cell lung, head and neck and breast cancers.

Advances of Epigenetic Biomarkers and Epigenome Editing for Early Diagnosis in Breast Cancer

Epigenetic modifications are known to regulate cell phenotype during cancer progression, including breast cancer. Unlike genetic alterations, changes in the epigenome are reversible, thus potentially reversed by epi-drugs. Breast cancer, the most common cause of cancer death worldwide in women, encompasses multiple histopathological and molecular subtypes. Several lines of evidence demonstrated distortion of the epigenetic landscape in breast cancer. Interestingly, mammary cells isolated from breast cancer patients and cultured ex vivo maintained the tumorigenic phenotype and exhibited aberrant epigenetic modifications. Recent studies indicated that the therapeutic efficiency for breast cancer regimens has increased over time, resulting in reduced mortality. Future medical treatment for breast cancer patients, however, will likely depend upon a better understanding of epigenetic modifications. The present review aims to outline different epigenetic mechanisms including DNA methylation, histone modifications, and ncRNAs with their impact on breast cancer, as well as to discuss studies highlighting the central role of epigenetic mechanisms in breast cancer pathogenesis. We propose new research areas that may facilitate locus-specific epigenome editing as breast cancer therapeutics.

A novel docetaxel derivative exhibiting potent anti-tumor activity and high safety in preclinical animal models

As a taxoid agent, docetaxel (DTX) exhibits potent antitumor activity. However, severe toxic side effects and acquired multidrug resistance represent its clinical challenges. Herein, a novel docetaxel derivative (DTX-AI) is synthesized via the nucleophilic addition reaction of 4-acetylphenyl carbamate at the C10 position of the DTX framework. DTX-AI exhibits superior cytotoxicity and a higher apoptotic ratio in vitro against DTX-sensitive tumor cells (MCF-7, HeLa and A549 cells) and even DTX-resistant ones (HeLa/PTX cells), but displays less toxicity against normal cells (MRC-5 and L929 cells) compared with DTX. DTX-AI can effectively suppress the growth of HeLa-tumor xenografts in vivo and even induce complete tumor regression. Furthermore, DTX-AI shows sustained effects on the inhibition of A549-tumor xenograft growth and no obvious recurrence, even after the drug administration was stopped for 30 d. More importantly, DTX-AI has significantly reduced long-term and short-term animal toxicity and extended the survival of mice (100%) compared with DTX (0%). DTX-AI is expected to be a promising 'me-better' anti-tumor drug with higher efficiency and lower toxicity for improved chemotherapy in the clinic.

Application Perspectives of Nanomedicine in Cancer Treatment

Cancer is a disease that seriously threatens human health. Based on the improvement of traditional treatment methods and the development of new treatment modes, the pattern of cancer treatment is constantly being optimized. Nanomedicine plays an important role in these evolving tumor treatment modalities. In this article, we outline the applications of nanomedicine in three important tumor-related fields: chemotherapy, gene therapy, and immunotherapy. According to the current common problems, such as poor targeting of first-line chemotherapy drugs, easy destruction of nucleic acid drugs, and common immune-related adverse events in immunotherapy, we discuss how nanomedicine can be combined with these treatment modalities, provide typical examples, and summarize the advantages brought by the application of nanomedicine.

Perspectives and Prospective on Solid Lipid Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems

Combating multiple drug resistance necessitates the delivery of drug molecules at the cellular level. Novel drug delivery formulations have made it possible to improve the therapeutic effects of drugs and have opened up new possibilities for research. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), a class of colloidal drug carriers made of lipids, have emerged as potentially effective drug delivery systems. The use of SLNs is associated with numerous advantages such as low toxicity, high bioavailability of drugs, versatility in the incorporation of hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs, and the potential for production of large quantities of the carrier systems. The SLNs and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are the two most frequently used types of nanoparticles. These types of nanoparticles can be adjusted to deliver medications in specific dosages to specific tissues, while minimizing leakage and binding to non-target tissues.

The other side to the use of active targeting ligands; the case of folic acid in the targeting of breast cancer

Due to its overexpression in cancer cells, the folate receptor (FR) is heavily exploited in the active targeting of nanoparticles (NPs). Its ligand, folic acid (FA) is as a consequence widely used as a NP targeting ligand. Although rather popular and successful in principle, recent data has shown that FA may result in breast cancer initiation and progression, which questions the suitability of FA as NP cancer targeting ligand. In this work, intravenous administration of free FA to healthy female mice resulted in breast tissue dysplasia, hyperplasia and in the increased expression of human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2), folate receptor (FR), cancer antigen 15-3 (CA15.3), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and the pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β. In addition to the reduction in IL2. To evaluate the suitability and safety of FA as NP targeting ligand in breast cancer, small (≈ 150 nm) and large (≈ 500 nm) chitosan NPs were formulated and decorated with two densities of FA. The success of active targeting by FA was confirmed in two breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells) in comparison to HEK293 cells. FA modified NPs that demonstrated successful active targeting in-vitro were assessed in-vivo. Upon intravenous administration, large NPs modified with a high density of FA accumulated in the breast tissue and resulted in similar effects as those observed with free FA. These results therefore question the suitability of FA as a targeting ligand in breast cancer and shed light on the importance of considering the activity (other than targeting) of the ligands used in NP active targeting.

Pharmaceutical Aspects of Nanocarriers for Smart Anticancer Therapy

Drug delivery to tumor sites using nanotechnology has been demonstrated to overcome the drawbacks of conventional anticancer drugs. Altering the surface shape and geometry of nanocomposites alters their chemical properties, which can confer multiple attributes to nanocarriers for the treatment of cancer and their use as imaging agents for cancer diagnosis. However, heterogeneity and blood flow in human cancer limit the distribution of nanoparticles at the site of tumor tisues. For targeted delivery and controlled release of drug molecules in harsh tumor microenvironments, smart nanocarriers combined with various stimuli-responsive materials have been developed. In this review, we describe nanomaterials for smart anticancer therapy as well as their pharmaceutical aspects including pharmaceutical process, formulation, controlled drug release, drug targetability, and pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic profiles of smart nanocarriers. Inorganic or organic-inorganic hybrid nanoplatforms and the electrospinning process have also been briefly described here.

Photosensitive drug delivery systems for cancer therapy: Mechanisms and applications

Over the past three decades, various photosensitive nanoparticles have been developed as potential therapies in human health, ranging from photodynamic therapy technologies that have already reached clinical use, to drug delivery systems that are still in the preclinical stages. Many of these systems are designed to achieve a high spatial and temporal on-demand drug release via phototriggerable mechanisms. This review examines the current clinical and experimental applications in cancer treatment of photosensitive drug release systems, including nanocarriers such as liposomes, micelles, polymeric nanoparticles, and hydrogels. We will focus on the three main physicochemical mechanisms of imparting photosensitivity to a delivery system: i) photochemical reactions (oxidation, cleavage, and polymerization), ii) photoisomerization, iii) and photothermal reactions. Photosensitive nanoparticles have a multitude of different applications including controlled drug release, resulting from physical/conformational changes in the delivery systems in response to light of specific wavelengths. Most of the recent research in these delivery systems has primarily focused on improving the efficacy and safety of cancer treatments such as photodynamic and photothermal therapy. Combinations of multiple treatment modalities using photosensitive nanoparticulate delivery systems have also garnered great interest in combating multi-drug resistant cancers due to their synergistic effects. Finally, the challenges and future potential of photosensitive drug delivery systems in biomedical applications is outlined.

Stimuli-Sheddable Nanomedicine Overcoming Pathophysiological Barriers for Potentiating Immunotherapy of Cancer

Immunotherapy displays potent potential for clinical cancer management by activating the protective immune response; however, the microenvironment of the immunosuppressive tumor restricts the efficiency of immunotherapies. Along with the complex pathophysiological barrier of the solid tumors, successful immunotherapeutic delivery remains a formidable challenge for conventional nanomedicine. Stimuli-sheddable nano vectors may facilitate the delivery of cargoes to tumors with minimal premature cargo leakage in blood circulation while enhancing the tumor penetration of nanomedicines by deshielding the polyethylene glycol (PEG) corona upon endogenous activity such as acidity, enzymes and glutathione, or external stimuli, such as laser irradiation. Throughout this study, researchers overviewed the recent advances of nanomedicine-based cancer immunotherapy using the stimuli-responsive deshielding nano vectors, which allowed researchers to integrate multiple therapeutic regimens for inducing immunogenic cell death. This aided in blocking the immune checkpoints, repolarizing the macrophages, and regulating the kynurenine metabolism. Furthermore, researchers discussed the critical issues in the development of stimuli-sheddable nanoimmunodulators, primarily aimed at speeding up their clinical translation. Finally, researchers provided novel perspectives for improving cancer management with the stimuli-sheddable nanomedicine.

A novel embolic microspheres with micro nano binary progressive structure for transarterial chemoembolization applications

In this work, a novel embolic microspheres with micro nano binary progressive structure (MN-Ms) were developed for transarterial chemoembolization (TCE) applications. The Bletilla striata polysaccharide (Bsp) polymer can inhibit neovascularization and having a dimensional porous network structure, which as the first level of micron structure (microspheres) and will play a role on tumor embolization and inhibition of ischemia-induced neovascularization. The nano flexible liposomes which were embedded by the Bsp polymer microspheres as the second level nano structure to deliver drug across biological membrane barriers. And the micro nano binary progressive structure of MN-Ms was easily formed by using an emulsion crosslinking method. The MN-Ms appeared as perfect round shape with desired swelling and suspensibility characteristics, this was very convenient for embolizing operation by TCE. Due to the binary progressive structure, the MN-Ms could effectively site-specific delivery drug to the targeted liver tissue by enhancing the permeability of Sodium dimethyl-cantharidate (SC) across vessel walls & tissue matrix and delaying drug release at the site of administration, this caused the administrated SC mostly accumulated in the liver, also a higher cytotoxicity to human hepatoma cells. This work indicate that the MN-Ms may be a promising embolic agent for TCE applications for advanced liver cancer.

Differential effects of N-TiO2 nanoparticle and its photo-activated form on autophagy and necroptosis in human melanoma A375 cells

The manipulation of autophagy provides a new opportunity for highly effective anticancer therapies. Recently, we showed that photodynamic therapy (PDT) with nitrogen-doped titanium dioxide (N-TiO₂ ) nanoparticles (NPs) could promote the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent autophagy in leukemia cells. However, the differential autophagic effects of N-TiO₂ NPs in the dark and light conditions and the potential of N-TiO_2- based PDT for the treatment of melanoma cells remain unknown. Here we show that depending on the visible-light condition, the autophagic response of human melanoma A375 cells to N-TiO₂ NPs switches between two different statuses (ie., flux or blockade) with the opposite outcomes (ie., survival or death). Mechanistically, low doses of N-TiO₂ NPs (1-100 µg/ml) stimulate a nontoxic autophagy flux response in A375 cells, whereas their photo-activation leads to the impairment of the autophagosome-lysosome fusion, the blockade of autophagy flux and consequently the induction of RIPK1-mediated necroptosis via ROS production. These results confirm that photo-controllable autophagic effects of N-TiO₂ NPs can be utilized for the treatment of cancer, particularly melanoma.

Dendrimers: Amazing Platforms for Bioactive Molecule Delivery Systems

Today, dendrimers are the main nanoparticle applied to drug delivery systems. The physicochemical characteristics of dendrimers and their versatility structural modification make them attractive to applied as a platform to bioactive molecules transport. Nanoformulations based on dendrimers enhance low solubility drugs, arrival to the target tissue, drugs bioavailability, and controlled release. This review describes the latter approaches on the transport of bioactive molecules based on dendrimers. The review focus is on the last therapeutic strategies addressed by dendrimers conjugated with bioactive molecules. A brief review of the latest studies in therapies against cancer and cardiovascular diseases, as well as future projections in the area, are addressed.

Petrogenetic and tectonic implications of Triassic granitoids in the Chinese Altay: the Alaer granite example

Petrogenesis of the Triassic Alaer granite in the Chinese Altay is important to understand the regional crustal evolution. This study found that the biotite granite is metaluminous and high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic. The rocks contain low SiO₂ (64.3–68.7 wt.%), high Al₂O₃ (13.46–16.56%) and K₂O (mostly 3.65–7.57 wt.%), and are featured by distinctly higher concentrations of HFSE (e.g., Th, Hf) and ΣREE than those of the nearby Devonian granites. REE patterns show right-inclining trend and weak negative Eu anomalies (δEu = mostly 0.68–0.94), whilst the spidergrams show consistent negative anomalies of Ba, Sr, P, Ti, Nb and Ta and positive anomalies of Th, K, La, Ce, Nd, Zr and Hf. Compared with the local Devonian granites, the Triassic granites have higher calculated initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios (0.70601–0.70920) and εNd(t) values −(−1.24 to −0.68). Their Nd model ages (average of 1.08 Ga for one-stage and 1.07 Ga for two-stage) are early Neoproterozoic to late Mesoproterozoic.

We infer that the Triassic Alaer granite belongs to I-type granite and likely formed in an intraplate extensional setting under high temperature (829–885 °C) and pressure (depths of 30–50 km, corresponding to the middle-lower crust in the Chinese Altay region). Granitic magma was produced through the melting of old continental basement with substantial mantle input, triggered by extensional upwelling of mantle-derived magmas. Mixing equation of Nd isotope compositions yielded a 40% of mantle-derived juvenile components for the Alaer granite petrogenesis.

Enzymatic synthesis of PEG–poly(amine-co-thioether esters) as highly efficient pH and ROS dual-responsive nanocarriers for anticancer drug delivery

Novel multifunctional drug nanocarriers with pH and ROS dual-responsibilities were developed using enzymatically synthesized materials.

A glutathione-responsive sulfur dioxide polymer prodrug as a nanocarrier for combating drug-resistance in cancer chemotherapy

Multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer remains a significant challenge for curing cancer by chemotherapy. In this work, a kind of glutathione (GSH)-responsive polymer prodrug of SO₂ was designed and synthesized, which presented synergistic effect with doxorubicin (DOX) for combating MCF-7 ADR human breast cancer cell. Firstly, a small molecular prodrug of SO₂, N-(3-azidopropyl)-2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfonamide (AP-DNs), was chemically conjugated onto the side chain of methoxy poly (ethylene glycol)-block-poly (γ-propargyl-l-glutamate) (mPEG-PPLG) block copolymer to generate an amphiphilic polymer prodrug of SO₂, mPEG-PLG (DNs). The obtained mPEG-PLG (DNs) prodrug could self-assemble into micelles in aqueous media and release SO₂ rapidly in response to thiol compounds. Then, DOX was loaded into mPEG-PLG (DNs) nanoparticles with ultrahigh drug-loading efficiency (97.3%). In vitro drug release tests indicated that the DOX-loaded nanoparticles could simultaneously release SO₂ and DOX by GSH triggering. Moreover, the effective cellular uptake of the DOX-loaded nanoparticles and subsequent intracellular release of SO₂ and DOX were verified by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and flow cytometry (FCM) analyses. The released SO₂ could promote the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level in tumor cells, which thereby resulted in oxidative damages of cancer cells, together with restoration of MCF-7 ADR cells sensitivity to DOX. As a result, the released DOX and SO₂ showed synergistic therapeutic effect against MCF-7 ADR cells. In vivo antitumor evaluation further indicated that, compared with free DOX, the DOX-loaded nanoparticles exhibited better antitumor effect in a MCF-7 ADR-xenografted nude mice model while had lower system toxicity. Overall, we demonstrated, for the first time, that a SO₂ polymer prodrug, acting as a stimuli-responsive nanocarrier to codeliver DOX, can efficiently inhibit the proliferation of MDR tumor cells, which may offer a new weapon for combating MDR in cancer therapy.

The effects of surface charge on the intra-tumor penetration of drug delivery vehicles with tumor progression

Tumor progression determines the penetrating ability of drug delivery vehicles with different surface charges.

IR-780-loaded polymeric micelles enhance the efficacy of photothermal therapy in treating breast cancer lymphatic metastasis in mice

Cancer metastasis is responsible for over 90% of breast cancer-related deaths, and inhibiting lymph node metastasis is an option to treat metastatic disease. Herein, we report the use of IR-780-loaded polymeric micelles (IPMs) for effective photothermal therapy (PTT) of breast cancer lymphatic metastasis. The IPMs were nanometer-sized micelles with a mean diameter of 25.6 nm and had good stability in simulated physiological solutions. Under 808-nm laser irradiation, IPMs exhibited high heat-generating capability in both in vitro and in vivo experiments. After intravenous injection, IPMs specifically accumulated in the tumor and metastatic lymph nodes and penetrated into these tissues. Moreover, a single IPMs treatment plus laser irradiation significantly inhibited primary tumor growth and suppressed lymphatic metastasis by 88.2%. Therefore, IPMs are an encouraging platform for PTT applications in treatment of metastatic breast cancer.

Acidity-Triggered Ligand-Presenting Nanoparticles To Overcome Sequential Drug Delivery Barriers to Tumors

The success of cancer chemotherapy is impeded by poor drug delivery efficiency due to the existence of a series of pathophysiological barriers in the tumor. In this study, we reported a tumor acidity-triggered ligand-presenting (ATLP) nanoparticle for cancer therapy. The ATLP nanoparticles were composed of an acid-responsive diblock copolymer as a sheddable matrix and an iRGD-modified polymeric prodrug of doxorubicin (iPDOX) as an amphiphilic core. A PEG corona of the polymer matrix protected the iRGD ligand from serum degradation and nonspecific interactions with the normal tissues while circulating in the blood. The ATLP nanoparticles specifically accumulated at the tumor site through the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, followed by acid-triggered dissociation of the polymer matrix within the tumoral acidic microenvironment (pH ∼ 6.8) and subsequently exposing the iRGD ligand for facilitating tumor penetration and cellular uptake of the PDOX prodrug. Additionally, the acid-triggered dissociation of the polymer matrix induced a 4.5-fold increase of the fluorescent signal for monitoring nanoparticle activation in vivo. Upon near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation, activation of Ce6-induced significant reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, promoted drug diffusion inside the tumor mass and circumvented the acquired drug resistance by altering the gene expression profile of the tumor cells. The ATLP strategy might provide a novel insight for cancer nanomedicine.

Cyanine based Nanoprobes for Cancer Theranostics

Cyanine dyes are greatly accredited in the development of non-invasive therapy that can "see" and "treat" tumor cells via imaging, photothermal and photodynamic treatment. However, these dyes suffer from poor pharmacokinetics inducing severe toxicity to normal cells, insufficient accumulation in tumor regions and rapid photobleaching when delivered in free forms. Nanoparticles engineered to encapsulate these compounds and delivering them into tumor regions have increased rapidly, however, so far, these nanoparticles (NPs) have not proved to be so effective to circumvent existing challenges. Newly designed multifunctional smart nanocarriers that can improve phototherapeutic properties of these dyes, co-encapsulate multiple potent therapeutic compounds, and simultaneously overcome limitations related to tumor recurrence, metastases, limited intracellular uptake, and tumor hypoxia have potential to revolutionize modern paradigm of cancer therapy. Such cyanine based multifunctional nanocarriers integrating imaging and therapy in a single platform can effectively produce better clinical outcomes in cancer treatment. This review briefly summarizes recent advancements of cyanine nanoprobes that are currently used as imaging/phototherapeutic agents in unimodal/bimodal/trimodal cancer theranostics. Finally, we conclude this review by addressing challenges of pre-existing therapeutic systems and designs adopted to overcome them with a brief insight assimilating future perspective of emerging cyanine-based NPs in cancer theranostics.

Treating breast cancer metastasis with cabazitaxel-loaded polymeric micelles

Cancer metastasis is the primary cause of high mortality in breast cancer patients. In this study, we loaded an anti-cancer drug, cabazitaxel (CTX), into polymeric micelles (CTX-loaded polymeric micelles, PCMs), and explored their therapeutic efficacy in breast cancer metastasis. The characteristics of PCMs were investigated, and their anti-metastatic efficacy was assessed using in vitro and in vivo evaluations. PCMs had an average diameter of 50.13±11.96 nm with a CTX encapsulation efficiency of 97.02%±0.97%. PCMs could be effectively internalized into metastatic 4T1 breast cancer cells in vitro. CTX (10 ng/mL) or an equivalent concentration in PCMs did not significantly affected the viability of 4T1 cells, but dramatically decreased the cell migration activities. In an orthotopic metastatic breast cancer model, intravenously administered PCMs could be efficiently delivered to the tumor sites, resulting in a 71.6% inhibition of tumor growth and a 93.5% reduction of lung metastases. Taken together, our results verify the anti-metastatic efficacy of PCMs, thus providing an encouraging strategy for treating breast cancer metastasis.