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Sharma S, Patil AS. Myostatin's marvels: From muscle regulator to diverse implications in health and disease. Cell Biochem Funct 2024; 42:e4106. [PMID: 39140697 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.4106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2024] [Revised: 07/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/28/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
Myostatin, a member of the transforming growth factor-β superfamily, is a pivotal regulator of skeletal muscle growth in mammals. Its discovery has sparked significant interest due to its multifaceted roles in various physiological processes and its potential therapeutic implications. This review explores the diverse functions of myostatin in skeletal muscle development, maintenance and pathology. We delve into its regulatory mechanisms, including its interaction with other signalling pathways and its modulation by various factors such as microRNAs and mechanical loading. Furthermore, we discuss the therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting myostatin for the treatment of muscle-related disorders, including cachexia, muscular dystrophy and heart failure. Additionally, we examine the impact of myostatin deficiency on craniofacial morphology and bone development, shedding light on its broader implications beyond muscle biology. Through a comprehensive analysis of the literature, this review underscores the importance of further research into myostatin's intricate roles and therapeutic potential in human health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonakshi Sharma
- Department of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopaedics, Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) Dental College and Hospital, Pune, Maharashtra, India
| | - Amol S Patil
- Department of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopaedics, Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) Dental College and Hospital, Pune, Maharashtra, India
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2
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Li R, Su P, Shi Y, Shi H, Ding S, Su X, Chen P, Wu D. Gene doping detection in the era of genomics. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 38403949 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Recent progress in gene editing has enabled development of gene therapies for many genetic diseases, but also made gene doping an emerging risk in sports and competitions. By delivery of exogenous transgenes into human body, gene doping not only challenges competition fairness but also places health risk on athletes. World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has clearly inhibited the use of gene and cell doping in sports, and many techniques have been developed for gene doping detection. In this review, we will summarize the main tools for gene doping detection at present, highlight the main challenges for current tools, and elaborate future utilizations of high-throughput sequencing for unbiased, sensitive, economic and large-scale gene doping detections. Quantitative real-time PCR assays are the widely used detection methods at present, which are useful for detection of known targets but are vulnerable to codon optimization at exon-exon junction sites of the transgenes. High-throughput sequencing has become a powerful tool for various applications in life and health research, and the era of genomics has made it possible for sensitive and large-scale gene doping detections. Non-biased genomic profiling could efficiently detect new doping targets, and low-input genomics amplification and long-read third-generation sequencing also have application potentials for more efficient and straightforward gene doping detection. By closely monitoring scientific advancements in gene editing and sport genetics, high-throughput sequencing could play a more and more important role in gene detection and hopefully contribute to doping-free sports in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruihong Li
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Center of Agri-Products Quality and Safety, Shanghai, China
| | - Peipei Su
- Innovative Program of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Shi
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hui Shi
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shengqian Ding
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Xianbin Su
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Biomedicine (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Center for Systems Biomedicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Peijie Chen
- School of Exercise and Health, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Die Wu
- eHealth Program of Shanghai Anti-doping Laboratory, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
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3
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Lanzarini F, Pereira FA, de Camargo J, Oliveira AM, Belaz KRA, Melendez-Perez JJ, Eberlin MN, Brum MCS, Mesquita FS, Sudano MJ. ELOVL5 Participates in Embryonic Lipid Determination of Cellular Membranes and Cytoplasmic Droplets. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22031311. [PMID: 33525659 PMCID: PMC7865478 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Embryonic lipids are crucial for the formation of cellular membranes and dynamically participate in metabolic pathways. Cells can synthesize simple fatty acids, and the elongation of fatty acids facilitates the formation of complex lipids. The aim of this work was to investigate the involvement of the elongation of very long chain fatty acid enzyme 5 (ELOVL5) in embryonic development and lipid determination. Bovine embryos were produced in vitro using a standard protocol and randomly divided to receive one of three treatments at Day 4: morpholino (Mo) gene expression knockdown assay for ELOVL5 (ELOVL5-Mo), Mo antisense oligonucleotides for the thalassemic β-globulin human mRNA (technical control Mo), and placebo (biological control). The phenotypes of embryonic development, cell number, ELOVL5 protein abundance, lipid droplet deposits, and lipid fingerprint were investigated. No detrimental effects (p > 0.05) were observed on embryo development in terms of cleavage (59.4 ± 3.5%, 63.6 ± 4.1%, and 65.4 ± 2.2%), blastocyst production (31.3 ± 4.2%, 28.1 ± 4.9%, and 36.1 ± 2.1%), and blastocyst cell number (99.6 ± 7.7, 100.2 ± 6.2, 86.8 ± 5.6), respectively, for biological control, technical control Mo, and ELOVL5-Mo. ELOVL5 protein abundance and cytoplasmic lipid droplet deposition were increased (p < 0.05) in ELOVL5-Mo-derived blastocysts compared with the controls. However, seven lipid species, including phosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylethanolamines, and triacylglycerol, were downregulated in the ELOVL5-Mo-derived blastocysts compared with the biological control. Therefore, ELOVL5 is involved in the determination of embryonic lipid content and composition. Transient translational blockage of ELOVL5 reduced the expression of specific lipid species and promoted increased cytoplasmic lipid droplet deposition, but with no apparent deleterious effect on embryonic development and blastocyst cell number.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franciele Lanzarini
- Curso de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Pampa, Unipampa, Uruguaiana 96460-000, RS, Brazil; (F.L.); (F.A.P.); (J.d.C.); (A.M.O.); (M.C.S.B.); (F.S.M.)
| | - Fernanda Alves Pereira
- Curso de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Pampa, Unipampa, Uruguaiana 96460-000, RS, Brazil; (F.L.); (F.A.P.); (J.d.C.); (A.M.O.); (M.C.S.B.); (F.S.M.)
| | - Janine de Camargo
- Curso de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Pampa, Unipampa, Uruguaiana 96460-000, RS, Brazil; (F.L.); (F.A.P.); (J.d.C.); (A.M.O.); (M.C.S.B.); (F.S.M.)
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, UFSCar, São Carlos 13565-905, SP, Brazil
| | - Andressa Minozzo Oliveira
- Curso de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Pampa, Unipampa, Uruguaiana 96460-000, RS, Brazil; (F.L.); (F.A.P.); (J.d.C.); (A.M.O.); (M.C.S.B.); (F.S.M.)
| | - Katia Roberta Anacleto Belaz
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Catalão, UFG/UFCAT, Catalão 75705-220, GO, Brazil;
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas 13083-970, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Marcos Nogueira Eberlin
- Núcleo de Pesquisa do Mackenzie em Ciência, Fé e Sociedade, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, São Paulo 01302-907, SP, Brazil;
| | - Mário Celso Sperotto Brum
- Curso de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Pampa, Unipampa, Uruguaiana 96460-000, RS, Brazil; (F.L.); (F.A.P.); (J.d.C.); (A.M.O.); (M.C.S.B.); (F.S.M.)
| | - Fernando Silveira Mesquita
- Curso de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Pampa, Unipampa, Uruguaiana 96460-000, RS, Brazil; (F.L.); (F.A.P.); (J.d.C.); (A.M.O.); (M.C.S.B.); (F.S.M.)
| | - Mateus José Sudano
- Curso de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Pampa, Unipampa, Uruguaiana 96460-000, RS, Brazil; (F.L.); (F.A.P.); (J.d.C.); (A.M.O.); (M.C.S.B.); (F.S.M.)
- Departamento de Genética e Evolução, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, UFSCar, São Carlos 13565-905, SP, Brazil
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humana, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André 09210-580, SP, Brazil
- Correspondence:
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Wilkin T, Baoutina A, Hamilton N. Equine performance genes and the future of doping in horseracing. Drug Test Anal 2017; 9:1456-1471. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tessa Wilkin
- Vet Faculty; University of Sydney; Gunn Building, Sydney University, Camperdown NSW Australia
- Bioanalysis; The National Measurement Institute; 36 Bradfield Rd, Lindfield Sydney New South Wales Australia
| | - Anna Baoutina
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science; The University of Sydney; Bradfield Rd West Lindfield New South Wales Australia
| | - Natasha Hamilton
- Faculty of Veterinary Science; University of Sydney; Sydney New South Wales Australia
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Abstract
Limits to athletic performance have long been a topic of myth and debate. However, sport performance appears to have reached a state of stagnation in recent years, suggesting that the physical capabilities of humans and other athletic species, such as greyhounds and thoroughbreds, cannot progress indefinitely. Although the ultimate capabilities may be predictable, the exact path for the absolute maximal performance values remains difficult to assess and relies on technical innovations, sport regulation, and other parameters that depend on current societal and economic conditions. The aim of this literature review was to assess the possible plateau of top physical capabilities in various events and detail the historical backgrounds and sociocultural, anthropometrical, and physiological factors influencing the progress and regression of athletic performance. Time series of performances in Olympic disciplines, such as track and field and swimming events, from 1896 to 2012 reveal a major decrease in performance development. Such a saturation effect is simultaneous in greyhound, thoroughbred, and frog performances. The genetic condition, exhaustion of phenotypic pools, economic context, and the depletion of optimal morphological traits contribute to the observed limitation of physical capabilities. Present conditions prevailing, we approach absolute physical limits and endure a continued period of world record scarcity. Optional scenarios for further improvements will mostly depend on sport technology and modification competition rules.
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Lopez Frias FJ. The defining components of the cyborg: cyborg-athletes, fictional or real? SPORT, ETHICS AND PHILOSOPHY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2016.1171249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Neuberger EWI, Perez I, Le Guiner C, Moser D, Ehlert T, Allais M, Moullier P, Simon P, Snyder RO. Establishment of two quantitative nested qPCR assays targeting the human EPO transgene. Gene Ther 2016; 23:330-9. [DOI: 10.1038/gt.2016.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Revised: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 12/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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8
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Dschietzig TB. Myostatin — From the Mighty Mouse to cardiovascular disease and cachexia. Clin Chim Acta 2014; 433:216-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2014.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2013] [Revised: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/19/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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From gene engineering to gene modulation and manipulation: can we prevent or detect gene doping in sports? Sports Med 2014; 43:965-77. [PMID: 23832852 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-013-0075-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
During the last 2 decades, progress in deciphering the human gene map as well as the discovery of specific defective genes encoding particular proteins in some serious human diseases have resulted in attempts to treat sick patients with gene therapy. There has been considerable focus on human recombinant proteins which were gene-engineered and produced in vitro (insulin, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-1, erythropoietin). Unfortunately, these substances and methods also became improper tools for unscrupulous athletes. Biomedical research has focused on the possible direct insertion of gene material into the body, in order to replace some defective genes in vivo and/or to promote long-lasting endogenous synthesis of deficient proteins. Theoretically, diabetes, anaemia, muscular dystrophies, immune deficiency, cardiovascular diseases and numerous other illnesses could benefit from such innovative biomedical research, though much work remains to be done. Considering recent findings linking specific genotypes and physical performance, it is tempting to submit the young athletic population to genetic screening or, alternatively, to artificial gene expression modulation. Much research is already being conducted in order to achieve a safe transfer of genetic material to humans. This is of critical importance since uncontrolled production of the specifically coded protein, with serious secondary adverse effects (polycythaemia, acute cardiovascular problems, cancer, etc.), could occur. Other unpredictable reactions (immunogenicity of vectors or DNA-vector complex, autoimmune anaemia, production of wild genetic material) also remain possible at the individual level. Some new substances (myostatin blockers or anti-myostatin antibodies), although not gene material, might represent a useful and well-tolerated treatment to prevent progression of muscular dystrophies. Similarly, other molecules, in the roles of gene or metabolic activators [5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide 1-β-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR), GW1516], might concomitantly improve endurance exercise capacity in ischaemic conditions but also in normal conditions. Undoubtedly, some athletes will attempt to take advantage of these new molecules to increase strength or endurance. Antidoping laboratories are improving detection methods. These are based both on direct identification of new substances or their metabolites and on indirect evaluation of changes in gene, protein or metabolite patterns (genomics, proteomics or metabolomics).
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10
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PCR-based detection of gene transfer vectors: application to gene doping surveillance. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:9641-53. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7264-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2013] [Revised: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Erythropoietin non-viral gene therapy does not affect motility, viability, morphology or concentration of rabbit sperm. Animal 2012; 7:778-83. [PMID: 23171533 DOI: 10.1017/s1751731112002157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Erythropoietin (EPO) gene therapy can be used for several purposes; however, its effects on reproductive performance are unknown. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicological effects of non-viral (EPO) gene transfer on sperm motility, viability, morphology and concentration. Rabbit EPO cDNA was cloned into a pTarget mammalian expression vector. Rabbits were administered with: (1) pTarget/EPO vector, (2) recombinant human EPO (rHuEpo) and (3) saline (control). Both pTarget/EPO and rHuEpo significantly increased (P < 0.05) hematocrit levels 1 week after injection and they remained significantly higher than the control for up to 5 weeks (P < 0.05), showing that both EPO treatments were effective in stimulating the production of red blood cells in rabbits. The EPO gene transfer or rHuEPO administration had no significant effect (P > 0.05) on sperm motility, vigor, viability, concentration or morphology in the testis.
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12
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Abstract
The possibility of genetic enhancement to increase the likelihood of success in sport and life's prospects raises questions for accounts of sport and theories of justice. These questions obviously include the fairness of such enhancement and its relationship to the goals of sport and demands of justice. Of equal interest, however, is the effect on our understanding of individual effort, merit, and desert of either discovering genetic contributions to components of such effort or recognizing the influence of social factors on the development and exercise of individual effort. This paper analyzes arguments about genetic enhancement with the goal of raising questions about how sport and justice regard unchosen, undeserved inequalities and what is assumed to be their opposite-namely, the exercise and results of individual effort. It is suggested that contemplating enhancement of natural assets previously outside human control may reinforce recognition of responsibility to intervene with regard to social advantages so as to support individual effort and improve individuals' life prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa S Parker
- Center for Bioethics and Health Law, University of Pittsburgh, 3708 Fifth Avenue, Suite 300, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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Ni W, Le Guiner C, Moullier P, Snyder RO. Development and utility of an internal threshold control (ITC) real-time PCR assay for exogenous DNA detection. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36461. [PMID: 22570718 PMCID: PMC3343023 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Accepted: 04/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensitive and specific tests for detecting exogenous DNA molecules are useful for infectious disease diagnosis, gene therapy clinical trial safety, and gene doping surveillance. Taqman real-time PCR using specific sequence probes provides an effective approach to accurately and quantitatively detect exogenous DNA. However, one of the major challenges in these analyses is to eliminate false positive signals caused by either non-targeted exogenous or endogenous DNA sequences, or false negative signals caused by impurities that inhibit PCR. Although multiplex Taqman PCR assays have been applied to address these problems by adding extra primer-probe sets targeted to endogenous DNA sequences, the differences between targets can lead to different detection efficiencies. To avoid these complications, a Taqman PCR-based approach that incorporates an internal threshold control (ITC) has been developed. In this single reaction format, the target sequence and ITC template are co-amplified by the same primers, but are detected by different probes each with a unique fluorescent dye. Sample DNA, a prescribed number of ITC template molecules set near the limit of sensitivity, a single pair of primers, target probe and ITC probe are added to one reaction. Fluorescence emission signals are obtained simultaneously to determine the cycle thresholds (Ct) for amplification of the target and ITC sequences. The comparison of the target Ct with the ITC Ct indicates if a sample is a true positive for the target (i.e. Ct less than or equal to the ITC Ct) or negative (i.e. Ct greater than the ITC Ct). The utility of this approach was demonstrated in a nonhuman primate model of rAAV vector mediated gene doping in vivo and in human genomic DNA spiked with plasmid DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiyi Ni
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | | | - Philippe Moullier
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Laboratoire de Thérapie Génique, INSERM UMR1089, IRT UN, Nantes, France
| | - Richard O. Snyder
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Laboratoire de Thérapie Génique, INSERM UMR1089, IRT UN, Nantes, France
- Center of Excellence for Regenerative Health Biotechnology, University of Florida, Alachua, Florida, United States of America
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Wintgens KF, Dschietzig T, Stoeva S, Paulsson M, Armbruster FP. Plasma myostatin measured by a competitive ELISA using a highly specific antiserum. Clin Chim Acta 2012; 413:1288-94. [PMID: 22561185 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2012.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2012] [Revised: 04/18/2012] [Accepted: 04/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the (patho)physiology of the negative muscle regulator myostatin (Myo) is important for patients with skeletal muscle disorders or cardiac disease. However, a reliable tool for measuring plasma Myo immunoreactivity is still lacking. METHODS Human full-length proMyo was used to raise a polyclonal rabbit antiserum for a competitive Myo ELISA that was validated in patients with decompensated congestive heart failure (CHF) and in control patients (n=20 each). RESULTS The Myo antiserum detected all subunits of human proMyo. The calibration curve showed an optimal range between 0.3 and 83.3 ng/ml (7.5-2100 pmol/l), with no cross-reactivity to growth differentiation factor-11, follistatin and follistatin-related gene protein. The inter-assay and intra-assay variances in human serum were ≤15% and ≤10%, respectively; the detection limit was 270 pg/ml (6.75 pmol/l). The assay showed excellent linearity in human plasma. Plasma NT-proBNP and Myo were significantly elevated in decompensated CHF compared with control patients and decreased significantly upon recompensating therapy. CONCLUSION We describe the development of the first ELISA for myostatin immunoreactivity and its validation during recompensating therapy for CHF. This assay will be valuable for investigating neurological and cardiac diseases and states of cachexia, insulin resistance, and obesity.
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Neuberger EWI, Jurkiewicz M, Moser DA, Simon P. Detection of EPO gene doping in blood. Drug Test Anal 2012; 4:859-69. [PMID: 22508654 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2011] [Revised: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Gene doping--or the abuse of gene therapy--will continue to threaten the sports world. History has shown that progress in medical research is likely to be abused in order to enhance human performance. In this review, we critically discuss the progress and the risks associated with the field of erythropoietin (EPO) gene therapy and its applicability to EPO gene doping. We present typical vector systems that are employed in ex vivo and in vivo gene therapy trials. Due to associated risks, gene doping is not a feasible alternative to conventional EPO or blood doping at this time. Nevertheless, it is well described that about half of the elite athlete population is in principle willing to risk its health to gain a competitive advantage. This includes the use of technologies that lack safety approval. Sophisticated detection approaches are a prerequisite for prevention of unapproved and uncontrolled use of gene therapy technology. In this review, we present current detection approaches for EPO gene doping, with a focus on blood-based direct and indirect approaches. Gene doping is detectable in principle, and recent DNA-based detection strategies enable long-term detection of transgenic DNA (tDNA) following in vivo gene transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elmo W I Neuberger
- Department of Sports Medicine, Rehabilitation and Disease Prevention, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
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16
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Battery L, Solomon A, Gould D. Gene doping: Olympic genes for Olympic dreams. J R Soc Med 2012; 104:494-500. [PMID: 22179292 DOI: 10.1258/jrsm.2011.110240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Battery
- Department of Endocrinology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Harlow CM20 1QX, UK
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17
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Oliveira R, Collares T, Smith K, Collares T, Seixas F. The use of genes for performance enhancement: doping or therapy? Braz J Med Biol Res 2011; 44:1194-201. [DOI: 10.1590/s0100-879x2011007500145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2011] [Accepted: 10/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - K.R. Smith
- University of Abertay Dundee, United Kingdom
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18
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Murua A, Orive G, Hernández RM, Pedraz JL. Emerging technologies in the delivery of erythropoietin for therapeutics. Med Res Rev 2011; 31:284-309. [PMID: 19967731 DOI: 10.1002/med.20184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Deciphering the function of proteins and their roles in signaling pathways is one of the main goals of biomedical research, especially from the perspective of uncovering pathways that may ultimately be exploited for therapeutic benefit. Over the last half century, a greatly expanded understanding of the biology of the glycoprotein hormone erythropoietin (Epo) has emerged from regulator of the circulating erythrocyte mass to a widely used therapeutic agent. Originally viewed as the renal hormone responsible for erythropoiesis, recent in vivo studies in animal models and clinical trials demonstrate that many other tissues locally produce Epo independent of its effects on red blood cell mass. Thus, not only its hematopoietic activity but also the recently discovered nonerythropoietic actions in addition to new drug delivery systems are being thoroughly investigated in order to fulfill the specific Epo release requirements for each therapeutic approach. The present review focuses on updating the information previously provided by similar reviews and recent experimental approaches are presented to describe the advances in Epo drug delivery achieved in the last few years and future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ainhoa Murua
- Laboratory of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Networking Biomedical Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine, CIBER-BBN, SLFPB-EHU, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of the Basque Country, 01006, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
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Camporesi S, Maugeri P. Genetic enhancement in sports: The role of reason and private rationalities in the public arena. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 2011; 20:248-57. [PMID: 21435299 PMCID: PMC3535328 DOI: 10.1017/s0963180110000897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Reviews of philosophical books run the risk of being either excessively and unconstructively critical or superficially praiseworthy. To avoid both these risks, we test the approach outlined by Häyry in his book Rationality and the Genetic Challenge: Making People Better? by applying it to an eighth genetic challenge, namely, a variation of the genetic enhancement challenge discussed by Häyry as it applies to sports. We assess whether genetic enhancement in sports should be conceived as an eighth wonder or an eighth cardinal sin that stems from the interaction between genetics and society, question whether Häyry’s nonconfrontational approach is really useful for dealing with these issues, and discuss how his method can be improved.
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Fallahi AA, Ravasi AA, Farhud DD. Genetic doping and health damages. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH 2011; 40:1-14. [PMID: 23113049 PMCID: PMC3481729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2010] [Accepted: 02/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Use of genetic doping or gene transfer technology will be the newest and the lethal method of doping in future and have some unpleasant consequences for sports, athletes, and outcomes of competitions. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) defines genetic doping as "the non-therapeutic use of genes, genetic elements, and/or cells that have the capacity to enhance athletic performance ". The purpose of this review is to consider genetic doping, health damages and risks of new genes if delivered in athletes. METHODS This review, which is carried out by reviewing relevant publications, is primarily based on the journals available in GOOGLE, ELSEVIER, PUBMED in fields of genetic technology, and health using a combination of keywords (e.g., genetic doping, genes, exercise, performance, athletes) until July 2010. CONCLUSION There are several genes related to sport performance and if they are used, they will have health risks and sever damages such as cancer, autoimmunization, and heart attack.
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Affiliation(s)
- AA Fallahi
- Dept. of Sport Physiology, School of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
| | - AA Ravasi
- Dept. of Sport Physiology, School of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
| | - DD Farhud
- School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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21
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Longevity of rAAV vector and plasmid DNA in blood after intramuscular injection in nonhuman primates: implications for gene doping. Gene Ther 2011; 18:709-18. [DOI: 10.1038/gt.2011.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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22
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Dias RG. Genética, performance física humana e doping genético: o senso comum versus a realidade científica. REV BRAS MED ESPORTE 2011. [DOI: 10.1590/s1517-86922011000100012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Atletas de elite são reconhecidos como fenômenos esportivos e o potencial para atingir níveis superiores de performance no esporte está parcialmente sob o controle de genes. A excelência atlética é essencialmente multifatorial e determinada por complexas interações entre fatores ambientais e genéticos. Existem aproximadamente 10 milhões de variantes genéticas dispersas por todo o genoma humano e uma parcela destas variantes têm demonstrado influenciar a responsividade ao treinamento físico. Os fenótipos de performance física humana parecem ser altamente poligênicos e alguns estudos têm comprovado a existência de raras combinações genotípicas em atletas. No entanto, os mecanismos pelos quais genes se interagem para amplificar a performance física são desconhecidos. O conhecimento sobre os genes que influenciam a treinabilidade somado ao potencial uso indevido dos avanços da terapia gênica, como a possível introdução de genes em células de atletas, fez surgir o termo doping genético, um novo e censurado método de amplificação da performance física, além dos limites fisiológicos. Aumentos na hipertrofia muscular esquelética e nos níveis de hematócrito estão sendo conseguidos através da manipulação da expressão de genes específicos, mas a grande parte das impressionáveis alterações foi obtida em experimentação com animais de laboratório. A compreensão dos resultados científicos envolvendo genética, performance física humana e doping genético é uma difícil tarefa. Com o propósito de evitar a contínua má interpretação e propagação de conceitos errôneos, esta revisão, intencionalmente, vem discutir as evidências científicas produzidas até o momento sobre o tema, permitindo a compreensão do atual "estado da arte"
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Gonçalves Dias
- HCFMUSP, Brasil; Polícia Militar do Estado de São Paulo, Brasil; Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Brasil
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23
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Beiter T, Zimmermann M, Fragasso A, Hudemann J, Niess AM, Bitzer M, Lauer UM, Simon P. Direct and long-term detection of gene doping in conventional blood samples. Gene Ther 2010; 18:225-31. [DOI: 10.1038/gt.2010.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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24
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Abstract
Gene doping, the abuse of gene therapy for illicit athletic enhancement, is perceived as a coming threat and is a prime concern to the anti-doping community. This doping technique represents a significant ethical challenge and there are concerns regarding its safety for athletes. This article presents the basics of gene doping, potential strategies for its detection and the role of promising new technologies in aiding detection efforts. These include the use of lab-on-a-chip techniques as well as nanoparticles to enhance the performance of current analytical methods and to develop new doping detection strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mai M H Mansour
- Department of Chemistry and YJ-Science and Technology Research Center, The American University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt
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25
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Abstract
"Gene doping" is the term used to describe the potential abuse of gene therapy as a performance-enhancing agent. Gene doping would apply the techniques used in gene therapy to provide altered expression of genes that would promote physical superiority. For example, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is a primary target for growth hormone; overexpression of IGF-1 can lead to increased muscle mass and power. Although gene doping is still largely theoretical, its implications for sports, health, ethics, and medical genetics are significant.
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26
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Characterization of the specific and sustained GH1 expression induced by rAAV2/1 in normal adult male rats. Mol Biol Rep 2010; 37:3643-51. [PMID: 20204528 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-010-0016-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2009] [Accepted: 02/17/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Our aim was to investigate the long-term effects of intramuscular injection of rAAV2/1-CMV-GH1 viral particles on GH1 expression in normal adult male rats. We found that specific and sustained GH1 expression did not improve muscle exercise performance despite inducing local muscle hypertrophy. Injection of rAAV2/1-CMV-GH1 had some systemic effects on the liver and heart and on lipid metabolism in the healthy rats. Serum levels of hGH (human growth hormone), insulin, glucose and leptin increased significantly, which might induce insulin resistance. The serum concentration of IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor 1), IGF-BP3 (insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3) and PIIINP (N-terminal propeptide of type III procollagen) markedly increased at 24 weeks after injection of GH1. In conclusion, GH1 expression driven by AAV2/1 in normal animals did not improve muscle strength but did increase muscle mass and may have systemic effects in healthy animals.
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27
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A microarray gene analysis of peripheral whole blood in normal adult male rats after long-term GH gene therapy. Cell Mol Biol Lett 2010; 15:177-95. [PMID: 20119855 PMCID: PMC6275718 DOI: 10.2478/s11658-010-0001-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2009] [Accepted: 12/21/2009] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The main aims of this study were to determine the effects of GH gene abuse/misuse in normal animals and to discover genes that could be used as candidate biomarkers for the detection of GH gene therapy abuse/misuse in humans. We determined the global gene expression profile of peripheral whole blood from normal adult male rats after long-term GH gene therapy using CapitalBio 27 K Rat Genome Oligo Arrays. Sixty one genes were found to be differentially expressed in GH gene-treated rats 24 weeks after receiving GH gene therapy, at a two-fold higher or lower level compared to the empty vector group (p < 0.05). These genes were mainly associated with angiogenesis, oncogenesis, apoptosis, immune networks, signaling pathways, general metabolism, type I diabetes mellitus, carbon fixation, cell adhesion molecules, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction. The results imply that exogenous GH gene expression in normal subjects is likely to induce cellular changes in the metabolism, signal pathways and immunity. A real-time qRT-PCR analysis of a selection of the genes confirmed the microarray data. Eight differently expressed genes were selected as candidate biomarkers from among these 61 genes. These 8 showed five-fold higher or lower expression levels after the GH gene transduction (p < 0.05). They were then validated in real-time PCR experiments using 15 single-treated blood samples and 10 control blood samples. In summary, we detected the gene expression profiles of rat peripheral whole blood after long-term GH gene therapy and screened eight genes as candidate biomarkers based on the microarray data. This will contribute to an increased mechanistic understanding of the effects of chronic GH gene therapy abuse/misuse in normal subjects.
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28
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Giacca M. Ethical and Social Problems of Gene Therapy. Gene Ther 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/978-88-470-1643-9_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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29
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Scarano S, Spiriti MM, Tigli G, Bogani P, Buiatti M, Mascini M, Minunni M. Affinity Sensing for Transgenes Detection in Antidoping Control. Anal Chem 2009; 81:9571-7. [DOI: 10.1021/ac901445b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simona Scarano
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica “Leo Pardi”, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50127 Firenze, Italy
| | - Maria M. Spiriti
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica “Leo Pardi”, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50127 Firenze, Italy
| | - Genny Tigli
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica “Leo Pardi”, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50127 Firenze, Italy
| | - Patrizia Bogani
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica “Leo Pardi”, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50127 Firenze, Italy
| | - Marcello Buiatti
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica “Leo Pardi”, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50127 Firenze, Italy
| | - Marco Mascini
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica “Leo Pardi”, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50127 Firenze, Italy
| | - Maria Minunni
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy, and Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica “Leo Pardi”, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 50127 Firenze, Italy
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30
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Abstract
The fight against doping in sport using analytical chemistry is a mature area with a history of approximately 100 years in horse racing and at least 40 years in human sport. Over that period, the techniques used and the breadth of coverage have developed significantly. These improvements in the testing methods have been matched by the increased sophistication of the methods, drugs and therapies available to the cheat and, as a result, testing has been a reactive process constantly adapting to meet new threats. Following the inception of the World Anti-Doping Agency, research into the methods and technologies available for human doping control have received coordinated funding on an international basis. The area of biomarker research has been a major beneficiary of this funding. The aim of this article is to review recent developments in the application of biomarkers to doping control and to assess the impact this could make in the future.
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31
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Abstract
Gene doping is the term given to the potential misuse of gene therapy for the purposes of enhancing athletic performance. Insulin like growth factor-I (IGF-I), the prime target of growth hormone action, is one candidate gene for improving performance. In recent years a number of transgenic and somatic gene transfer studies on animals have shown that upregulation of IGF-I stimulates muscle growth and improves function. This increase in muscle IGF-I is not reflected in measurable increases in circulating IGF-I. Whilst the responses obtained in the animal studies would appear to give clear benefits for performance, the transfer of such techniques to humans still presents many technical challenges. Further challenges will also be faced by the anti doping authorities in detecting the endogenously produced products of enhanced gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen D R Harridge
- Division of Applied Biomedical Research, School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Shepherd's House, Guy's Campus, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom.
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32
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Solomon LM, Mordkoff DS, Noll RC. Physical enhancement of human performance: is law keeping pace with science? GENDER MEDICINE 2009; 6:249-58. [PMID: 19467521 DOI: 10.1016/j.genm.2009.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/02/2009] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In the area of genometry-the nascent field of science and technology that proposes to apply enhanced understanding of the human genetic code to reshaping our individual and collective destinies-no topic has generated more interest among the general public, as well as in the athletic community, than the potential for physical enhancement of the human body and its performance. Genometric experiments have produced physically enhanced mice, and the production of similarly enhanced humans may not be far off. Although it is not the objective of most genometric research, the day will come when gene-based "treatments" will enable individuals to build muscle or increase endurance faster than is possible through conventional methods. This article describes developments in the area of physical enhancement that may find application in the "gene doping" of athletes. For example, human performance-related genes may be delivered to athletes using tools developed for research in gene therapy; the protein products of these genes may be administered in recombinant form; and recently discovered small-molecule activators of the major genetic regulatory pathways of physical prowess may be taken orally, providing "exercise in a pill". This article also describes US and international attempts to regulate and punish the use of prohibited techniques for performance enhancement among athletes. As science advances, defining and detecting "gene doping" becomes increasingly complex. Thus, the study of physical enhancement provides an ideal starting point for the interdisciplinary Redefined Destinies Colloquium's examination of the intersection between law and science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis M Solomon
- Proskauer Rose LLP, 1585 Broadway, New York, NY 10036-8299, USA.
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33
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Thevis M, Kuuranne T, Geyer H, Schänzer W. Annual banned-substance review: the Prohibited List 2008-analytical approaches in human sports drug testing. Drug Test Anal 2009; 1:4-13. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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34
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Abstract
This themed issue of the British Journal of Pharmacology has been compiled and edited by Ian McGrath, Regius Professor of Physiology at University of Glasgow and David Cowan, Director of the Drug Control Centre at King's College London. It contains 11 articles covering the mechanisms of action of the major groups of drugs used illicitly in sport. The articles, written by experts in how drugs work, set out where drugs can or cannot affect sporting performance, how this relates to their legitimate medicinal use, their other detrimental effects and how they can be detected. Publication coincides with Olympic year, when sport is highlighted in the public mind and much speculation is made concerning the use of drugs. The articles provide a framework of expert, accurate knowledge to inform and facilitate these debates and to help to overcome the ill-informed and dangerous anecdotal information by which sports men and women are persuaded to misuse drugs in the mistaken belief that this will improve their performance without present or future ill effects. A unique article is included by the Spedding brothers, Mike with a long career in drug discovery and Charlie, the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Marathon Bronze Medallist and still the English National Marathon record holder. From their unique experience, they describe the insidious and unfair way that drug-assisted performance undermines the ethos of sport and endangers the vital place of sport in maintaining the health of the population.
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35
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Wells D. Genetic engineering in athletes. BMJ 2008; 337:a607. [PMID: 18614474 PMCID: PMC2453248 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.a607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Safeguards are needed before the hypothetical threat becomes a reality
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