Sesn2 gene ablation enhances susceptibility to gentamicin-induced hair cell death via modulation of AMPK/mTOR signaling

Sestrin2 plays a protective role in Age-related hearing loss by inhibiting NLRP3-inflammasome activity

Age-related hearing loss (ARHL) is an auditory disease characterized by gradual loss of high-frequency hearing sensitivity. Excessive reactive oxygen species trigger NLRP3-inflammasome activation that may be crucial for ARHL pathogenesis. The antioxidant factor Sestrin2 (SESN2) has been reported to be involved in the remission of oxidative stress and ARHL. However, the mechanism by which SESN2 protects auditory cells in the aging mouse cochlea remains unknown. Here, we observed that ectopic overexpression of SESN2 delayed ARHL, whereas SESN2 knockdown accelerated it. Importantly, we elucidated that SESN2 exerts a hearing-protective effect by inhibiting the production of NLRP3 by acting as a mitophagy agonist. Our study proposes a new theoretical basis for SESN2 prevention of ARHL and provides a novel therapeutic strategy for maintaining SESN2 activity in the aging cochlea.

Sestrin2 and Sestrin3 protect spermatogenesis against heat-induced meiotic defects†

Heat stress induces testicular oxidative stress, impairs spermatogenesis, and increases the risk of male infertility. Recent studies have highlighted the antioxidative properties of the Sestrins family in reducing cellular oxidative damage. However, the role of Sestrins (Sestrin1, 2, and 3) in the testicular response to heat stress remains unclear. Here, we found that Sestrin2 and 3 were highly expressed in the testis relative to Sestrin1. Then, the Sestrin2-/- and Sestrin3-/- mice were generated by CRISPR/Cas9 to investigate the role of them on spermatogenesis after heat stress. Our data showed that Sestrin2-/- and Sestrin3-/- mice testes exhibited more severe damage manifested by exacerbated loss of germ cells and higher levels of oxidative stress as compared to wild-type counterparts after heat stress. Notably, Sestrin2-/- and Sestrin3-/- mice underwent a remarkable increase in heat-induced spermatocyte apoptosis than that of controls. Furthermore, the transcriptome landscape of spermatocytes and chromosome spreading showed that loss of Sestrin2 and Sestrin3 exacerbated meiotic failure by compromising DNA double-strand breaks repair after heat stress. Taken together, our work demonstrated a critical protective function of Sestrin2 and Sestrin3 in mitigating the impairments of spermatogenesis against heat stress.

Potential role of modulating autophagy levels in sensorineural hearing loss

In recent years, extensive research has been conducted on the pathogenesis of sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). Apoptosis and necrosis have been identified to play important roles in hearing loss, but they cannot account for all hearing loss. Autophagy, a cellular process responsible for cell self-degradation and reutilization, has emerged as a significant factor contributing to hearing loss, particularly in cases of autophagy deficiency. Autophagy plays a crucial role in maintaining cell health by exerting cytoprotective and metabolically homeostatic effects in organisms. Consequently, modulating autophagy levels can profoundly impact the survival, death, and regeneration of cells in the inner ear, including hair cells (HCs) and spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs). Abnormal mitochondrial autophagy has been demonstrated in animal models of SNHL. These findings indicate the profound significance of comprehending autophagy while suggesting that our perspective on this cellular process holds promise for advancing the treatment of SNHL. Thus, this review aims to clarify the pathogenic mechanisms of SNHL and the role of autophagy in the developmental processes of various cochlear structures, including the greater epithelial ridge (GER), SGNs, and the ribbon synapse. The pathogenic mechanisms of age-related hearing loss (ARHL), also known as presbycusis, and the latest research on autophagy are also discussed. Furthermore, we underscore recent findings on the modulation of autophagy in SNHL induced by ototoxic drugs. Additionally, we suggest further research that might illuminate the complete potential of autophagy in addressing SNHL, ultimately leading to the formulation of pioneering therapeutic strategies and approaches for the treatment of deafness.

Injectable dexamethasone-loaded peptide hydrogel for therapy of radiation-induced ototoxicity by regulating the mTOR signaling pathway

Radiation-induced ototoxicity is associated with inflammation response and excessive reactive oxygen species in the cochlea. However, the effectiveness of many drugs in clinical settings is limited due to anatomical barriers in the inner ear and pharmacokinetic instability. To address this issue, we developed an injectable hydrogel called RADA32-HRN-dexamethasone (RHD). The RHD hydrogel possesses self-anti-inflammatory properties and can self-assemble into nanofibrous structures, ensuring controlled and sustained release of dexamethasone in the local region. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that the uptake of FITC-conjugated RHD gel by hair cells increased in a time-dependent manner. Compared to free dexamethasone solutions, dexamethasone-loaded RHD gel achieved a longer and more controlled release profile of dexamethasone. Additionally, RHD gel effectively protected against the inflammatory response, reduced excessive reactive oxygen species production, and reversed the decline in mitochondrial membrane potentials induced by ionizing radiation, leading to attenuation of apoptosis and DNA damage. Moreover, RHD gel promoted the recovery of outer hair cells and partially restored auditory function in mice exposed to ionizing radiation. These findings validated the protective effects of RHD gel against radiation-induced ototoxicity in both cell cultures and animal models. Furthermore, RHD gel enhanced the activity of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway, which was inhibited by ionizing radiation, thereby promoting the survival of hair cells. Importantly, intratympanic injections of RHD gel exhibited excellent biosafety and do not interfere with the anti-tumor effects of radiotherapy. In summary, our study demonstrates the therapeutic potential of injectable dexamethasone-loaded RHD hydrogel for the treatment of radiation-induced hearing loss by regulating the mTOR signaling pathway.

MicroRNA-34a-5p promotes the progression of osteoarthritis secondary to developmental dysplasia of the hip by restraining SESN2-induced autophagy

Osteoarthritis (OA), a late-stage complication of developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH), is a key factor leading to further degeneration of joint function. Studies have shown that Sestrin2 (SESN2) is a positive regulator in protecting articular cartilage from degradation. However, the regulatory effects of SESN2 on DDH-OA and its upstream regulators remain obscure. Here, we first identified that the expression of SESN2 significantly decreased in the cartilage of DDH-OA samples, with an expression trend negatively correlated with OA severity. Using RNA sequencing, we identified that the upregulation of miR-34a-5p may be an important factor for the decrease in SESN2 expression. Further exploring the regulation mechanism of miR-34a-5p/SESN2 is of great significance for understanding the mechanism of DDH occurrence and development. Mechanistically, we showed that miR-34a-5p could significantly inhibit the expression of SESN2, thereby promoting the activity of the mTOR signaling pathway. We also found that miR-34a-5p significantly inhibited SESN2-induced autophagy, thereby suppressing the proliferation and migration of chondrocytes. We further validated that knocking down miR-34a-5p in vivo resulted in a significant increase in SESN2 expression and autophagy activity in DDH-OA cartilage. Our study suggests that miR-34a-5p is a negative regulator of DDH-OA, and may provide a new target for the prevention of DDH-OA.

Finding the balance: The elusive mechanisms underlying auditory hair cell mitochondrial biogenesis and mitophagy

In all cell types, mitochondrial biogenesis is balanced with mitophagy to maintain a healthy mitochondrial pool that sustains specific energetic demands. Cell types that have a higher energetic burden, such as skeletal muscle cells and cardiomyocytes, will subsequently develop high mitochondrial volumes. In these cells, calcium influx during activity triggers cascades leading to activation of the co-transcriptional regulation factor PGC-1α, a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis, in a well-defined pathway. Despite the advantages in ATP production, high mitochondrial volumes might prove to be perilous, as it increases exposure to reactive oxygen species produced during oxidative phosphorylation. Mechanosensory hair cells are highly metabolically active cells, with high total mitochondrial volumes to meet that demand. However, the mechanisms leading to expansion and maintenance of the hair cell mitochondrial pool are not well defined. Calcium influx during mechanotransduction and synaptic transmission regulate hair cell mitochondria, leading to a possibility that similar to skeletal muscle and cardiomyocytes, intracellular calcium underlies the expansion of the hair cell mitochondrial volume. This review briefly summarizes the potential mechanisms underlying mitochondrial biogenesis in other cell types and in hair cells. We propose that hair cell mitochondrial biogenesis is primarily product of cellular differentiation rather than calcium influx, and that the hair cell high mitochondrial volume renders them more susceptible to reactive oxygen species increased by calcium flux than other cell types.

IGF-1 Controls Metabolic Homeostasis and Survival in HEI-OC1 Auditory Cells through AKT and mTOR Signaling

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is a trophic factor for the nervous system where it exerts pleiotropic effects, including the regulation of metabolic homeostasis. IGF-1 deficiency induces morphological alterations in the cochlea, apoptosis and hearing loss. While multiple studies have addressed the role of IGF-1 in hearing protection, its potential function in the modulation of otic metabolism remains unclear. Here, we report that "House Ear Institute-organ of Corti 1" (HEI-OC1) auditory cells express IGF-system genes that are regulated during their differentiation. Upon binding to its high-affinity receptor IGF1R, IGF-1 activates AKT and mTOR signaling to stimulate anabolism and, concomitantly, to reduce autophagic catabolism in HEI-OC1 progenitor cells. Notably, IGF-1 stimulation during HEI-OC1 differentiation to mature otic cells sustained both constructive metabolism and autophagic flux, possibly to favor cell remodeling. IGF1R engagement and downstream AKT signaling promoted HEI-OC1 cell survival by maintaining redox balance, even when cells were challenged with the ototoxic agent cisplatin. Our findings establish that IGF-1 not only serves an important function in otic metabolic homeostasis but also activates antioxidant defense mechanisms to promote hair cell survival during the stress response to insults.

Sestrin 2 Deficiency Exacerbates Noise-Induced Cochlear Injury Through Inhibiting ULK1/Parkin-Mediated Mitophagy

Aims: Noise damage to auditory hair cells is associated with oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. This study aimed to investigate the possible effect of sestrin 2 (SESN2), an endogenous antioxidant protein, on noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) and the underlying mechanisms. Results: We identified SESN2 as a protective factor against oxidative stress in NIHL through activation of Parkin-mediated mitophagy. Consistently, SESN2 expression was increased and mitophagy was induced during the early stage after a temporary threshold shift due to noise exposure or hydrogen peroxide(H2O2) stimulation; conversely, SESN2 deficiency blocked mitophagy and exacerbated acoustic trauma. Mechanistically, SESN2 interacted with Unc-51-like protein kinase 1(ULK1), promoting ULK1 protein-level stabilization by interfering with its proteasomal degradation. This stabilization is essential for mitophagy initiation, since restoring ULK1 expression in SESN2-silenced cells rescued mitophagy defects. Innovation and Conclusion: Our results provide novel insights regarding SESN2 as a therapeutic target against noise-induced cochlear injury, possibly through improved mitophagy. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 38, 115-136.

Application of New Materials in Auditory Disease Treatment

Auditory diseases are disabling public health problems that afflict a significant number of people worldwide, and they remain largely incurable until now. Driven by continuous innovation in the fields of chemistry, physics, and materials science, novel materials that can be applied to hearing diseases are constantly emerging. In contrast to conventional materials, new materials are easily accessible, inexpensive, non-invasive, with better acoustic therapy effects and weaker immune rejection after implantation. When new materials are used to treat auditory diseases, the wound healing, infection prevention, disease recurrence, hair cell regeneration, functional recovery, and other aspects have been significantly improved. Despite these advances, clinical success has been limited, largely due to issues regarding a lack of effectiveness and safety. With ever-developing scientific research, more novel materials will be facilitated into clinical use in the future.

Target Sestrin2 to Rescue the Damaged Organ: Mechanistic Insight into Its Function

Sestrin2 is a stress-inducible metabolic regulator and a conserved antioxidant protein which has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases. Sestrin2 can protect against atherosclerosis, heart failure, hypertension, myocardial infarction, stroke, spinal cord injury neurodegeneration, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), liver fibrosis, acute kidney injury (AKI), chronic kidney disease (CKD), and pulmonary inflammation. Oxidative stress and cellular damage signals can alter the expression of Sestrin2 to compensate for organ damage. Different stress signals such as those mediated by P53, Nrf2/ARE, HIF-1α, NF-κB, JNK/c-Jun, and TGF-β/Smad signaling pathways can induce Sestrin2 expression. Subsequently, Sestrin2 activates Nrf2 and AMPK. Furthermore, Sestrin2 is a major negative regulator of mTORC1. Sestrin2 indirectly regulates the expression of several genes and reprograms intracellular signaling pathways to attenuate oxidative stress and modulate a large number of cellular events such as protein synthesis, cell energy homeostasis, mitochondrial biogenesis, autophagy, mitophagy, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, apoptosis, fibrogenesis, and lipogenesis. Sestrin2 vigorously enhances M2 macrophage polarization, attenuates inflammation, and prevents cell death. These alterations in molecular and cellular levels improve the clinical presentation of several diseases. This review will shed light on the beneficial effects of Sestrin2 on several diseases with an emphasis on underlying pathophysiological effects.

A deep learning approach to quantify auditory hair cells

Hearing loss affects millions of people worldwide. Yet, there are still no curative therapies for sensorineural hearing loss. Frequent causes of sensorineural hearing loss are due to damage or loss of the sensory hair cells, the spiral ganglion neurons, or the synapses between them. Culturing the organ of Corti allows the study of all these structures in an experimental model, which is easy to manipulate. Therefore, the in vitro culture of the neonatal mammalian organ of Corti remains a frequently used experimental system, in which hair cell survival is routinely assessed. However, the analysis of the surviving hair cells is commonly performed via manual counting, which is a time-consuming process and the inter-rater reliability can be an issue. Here, we describe a deep learning approach to quantify hair cell survival in the murine organ of Corti explants. We used StarDist, a publicly available platform and plugin for Fiji (Fiji is just ImageJ), to train and apply our own custom deep learning model. We successfully validated our model in untreated, cisplatin, and gentamicin treated organ of Corti explants. Therefore, deep learning is a valuable approach for quantifying hair cell survival in organ of Corti explants. Moreover, we also demonstrate how the publicly available Fiji plugin StarDist can be efficiently used for this purpose.

Sestrin2 in hypoxia and hypoxia-related diseases

Objectives: Sestrin2 is a stress-inducible protein and play an important role in adapting stress states of cells. This article reviewed the role of Sestrin2 in hypoxia and hypoxia-related diseases to provide new perspectives for future research and new therapeutic targets for hypoxia-related diseases.

Methods: A review was conducted through an electronic search of PubMed and Medline databases. Keywords included Sestrin2, ROS, hypoxia, and hypoxia-related disease. Articles from 2008 to 2021 were mostly included and older ones were not excluded.

Results: Sestrin2 is upregulated under various stress conditions, especially hypoxia. Under hypoxic condition, Sestrin2 plays a protective role by reducing the generation of ROS through various pathways, such as adenosine monophosphatea-ctivated protein kinase (AMPK) / mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway and nuclear factor-E2-related factor2 (Nrf2) pathway. In addition, Sestrin2 is involved in various hypoxia-related diseases, such as cerebral hypoxic disease, myocardial hypoxic disease, hypoxia-related respiratory disease, and diabetes.

Discussion: Sestrin2 is involved in various hypoxia-related diseases and maybe a therapeutic target. Furthermore, most studies focus on cerebral and myocardial ischemia reperfusion. More researches on hypoxia-related respiratory diseases, kidney injury, and diabetes are needed in future.

Study of the Mechanism by Which Curcumin Cooperates with Sestrin2 to Inhibit the Growth of Pancreatic Cancer

Background

Pancreatic carcinoma is a malignant tumor with a high fatality rate, and the increased resistance of pancreatic carcinoma to chemotherapy has become a difficult problem in clinical practice. Hence, it is imperative to develop an effective treatment for pancreatic cancer. Sestrins are a class of stress-induced proteins that have antioxidation functions, regulating cell growth and metabolism. Curcumin is a natural pigment isolated from turmeric. Several studies have also suggested that this molecule has multiple pharmacological effects, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor effects. However, there are insufficient studies on curcumin cooperating with the sestrin family to inhibit tumors, and the mechanism is still unclear. Our aim was to observe the potential anticancer effects of curcumin combined with the sestrin family on pancreatic carcinoma and probe its possible molecular mechanisms.

Methods

Lentiviral infection, real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR assays, Cell Counting Kit-8 assays, real-time cell analysis technology, colony formation assays, wound healing assays, Transwell invasion assays, protein extraction, and western blots (WBs) were used to evaluate the effect of curcumin combined with sestrin2 on the proliferation, invasion, and migration of pancreatic carcinoma cells.

Results

The results revealed that curcumin cooperated with sestrin2 to significantly suppress pancreatic cancer. In addition, we determined that sestrin2 cooperated with curcumin to inhibit pancreatic cancer by specifically targeting Nrf2/Keap1/HO-1/NQO-1.

Conclusion

These findings clarify that curcumin-mediated synergistic targeting of sestrin2 is a potentially valuable treatment for pancreatic cancer.

mTOR Signaling in the Inner Ear as Potential Target to Treat Hearing Loss

Hearing loss affects many people worldwide and occurs often as a result of age, ototoxic drugs and/or excessive noise exposure. With a growing number of elderly people, the number of people suffering from hearing loss will also increase in the future. Despite the high number of affected people, for most patients there is no curative therapy for hearing loss and hearing aids or cochlea implants remain the only option. Important treatment approaches for hearing loss include the development of regenerative therapies or the inhibition of cell death/promotion of cell survival pathways. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway is a central regulator of cell growth, is involved in cell survival, and has been shown to be implicated in many age-related diseases. In the inner ear, mTOR signaling has also started to gain attention recently. In this review, we will emphasize recent discoveries of mTOR signaling in the inner ear and discuss implications for possible treatments for hearing restoration.

PIN1 Protects Hair Cells and Auditory HEI-OC1 Cells against Senescence by Inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR Pathway

A growing amount of evidence has confirmed the crucial role of the prolyl isomerase PIN1 in aging and age-related diseases. However, the mechanism of PIN1 in age-related hearing loss (ARHL) remains unclear. Pathologically, ARHL is primarily due to the loss and dysfunction of hair cells (HCs) and spiral ganglion cells (SGCs) in the cochlea. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to investigate the role of PIN1 in protecting hair cells and auditory HEI-OC1 cells from senescence. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence were used to detect the PIN1 protein level in the serum of ARHL patients and C57BL/6 mice in different groups, and in the SGCs and HCs of young and aged C57BL/6 mice. In addition, a model of HEI-OC1 cell senescence induced by H2O2 was used. Adult C57BL/6 mice were treated with juglone, or juglone and NAC, for 4 weeks. Interestingly, we found that the PIN1 protein expression decreased in the serum of patients with ARHL, in senescent HEI-OC1 cells, and in the cochlea of aged mice. Moreover, under H2O2 and juglone treatment, a large amount of ROS was produced, and phosphorylation of p53 was induced. Importantly, PIN1 expression was significantly increased by treatment with the p53 inhibitor pifithrin-α. Overexpression of PIN1 reversed the increased level of p-p53 and rescued HEI-OC1 cells from senescence. Furthermore, PIN1 mediated cellular senescence by the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. In vivo data from C57BL/6 mice showed that treatment with juglone led to hearing loss. Taken together, these findings demonstrated that PIN1 may act as a vital modulator in hair cell and HEI-OC1 cell senescence.

Sestrin Proteins Protect Against Lipotoxicity-Induced Oxidative Stress in the Liver via Suppression of C-Jun N-Terminal Kinases

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Sestrin 1/2/3 (Sesn1/2/3) belong to a small family of proteins that have been implicated in the regulation of metabolic homeostasis and oxidative stress. However, the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood. The aim of this work was to illustrate the collective function of Sesn1/2/3 in the protection against hepatic lipotoxicity.

METHODS

We used Sesn1/2/3 triple knockout (TKO) mouse and cell models to characterize oxidative stress and signal transduction under lipotoxic conditions. Biochemical, histologic, and physiological approaches were applied to illustrate the related processes.

RESULTS

After feeding with a Western diet for 8 weeks, TKO mice developed remarkable metabolic associated fatty liver disease that was manifested by exacerbated hepatic steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis compared with wild-type counterparts. Moreover, TKO mice exhibited higher levels of hepatic lipotoxicity and oxidative stress. Our biochemical data revealed a critical signaling node from sestrins to c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) in that sestrins interact with JNKs and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 7 and suppress the JNK phosphorylation and activity. In doing so, sestrins markedly reduced palmitate-induced lipotoxicity and oxidative stress in both mouse and human hepatocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

The data from this study suggest that Sesn1/2/3 play an important role in the protection against lipotoxicity-associated oxidative stress and related pathology in the liver.

Icariin Treatment Protects Against Gentamicin-Induced Ototoxicity via Activation of the AMPK-SIRT3 Pathway

Ototoxicity is a serious health problem that greatly affects millions of people worldwide. This condition is caused by the entry of aminoglycosides into auditory hair cells, subsequently inducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and accumulation. Several strategies have been adopted to overcome irreversible ROS-induced hair cell loss in mammals. In recent years, icariin, a major active component of the traditional herb Epimedium, has been widely studied and revealed to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties. In this study, we found that icariin pretreatment improved the survival rate of gentamicin-treated House Ear Institute-Organ of Corti 1 (HEI-OC1) cells and cochlear explants. Icariin remarkably suppressed HEI-OC1 cell apoptosis and inhibited ROS production in cells. Notably, icariin upregulated PGC-1α (SIRT3 promoter) and SIRT3 expression in HEI-OC1 cells. In addition, SIRT3 inhibition significantly attenuated the anti-apoptotic effect of icariin. We also found that icariin can increase AMPK phosphorylation. Further studies showed that inhibition of SIRT3 activity had no significant effect on AMPK phosphorylation. Furthermore, the AMPK inhibitor compound C significantly suppressed SIRT3 expression, meaning that AMPK, as an upstream molecule, regulates SIRT3 expression. Meanwhile, inhibition of AMPK activity significantly reduced the protective effect of icariin on gentamicin ototoxicity. Based on these results, icariin exerts its protective effect on gentamicin-induced ototoxicity via activation of the AMPK-SIRT3 signaling pathway, thus providing a new strategy for treating ototoxicity caused by aminoglycoside antibiotics.

Hexavalent chromium induced heart dysfunction via Sesn2-mediated impairment of mitochondrial function and energy supply

Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)), the most toxic valence state of chromium, is widely present in industrial effluents and wastes. Although previous study has reported that Cr(VI) can cause cytomembrane structure impairment by aggravating lipid peroxidation in the heart, the detailed mechanism of Cr(VI)-induced heart dysfunction is still unclear. Sesn2, a novel antioxidant and stress-inducible molecule, is evidenced to protect against various cardiometabolic diseases such as atherosclerosis and cardiomyopathy. To define the potential mechanism of heart dysfunction induced by chronic Cr(VI) exposure, Wistar rats were intraperitoneal injected with potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) for 35 d in the present study. The data showed that chronic K₂Cr₂O₇ exposure caused dose-dependently hematological variations, oxidative stress, dysfunction, and disorganized structure of heart, cardiomyocyte apoptosis, ATP depletion, and mitochondria impairment in rats. In addition, the expressions of Drp1 and Bax were increased by K₂Cr₂O₇. However, the suppression of Mfn2, PGC-1α, Sesn2, nuclear Nrf2, HO-1, and NQO1 protein levels was observed in K₂Cr₂O₇-treated rat hearts. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that chronic K₂Cr₂O₇ exposure dose-dependently causes heart dysfunction, and the molecular mechanism of this event is associated with the loss of Sesn2 mediated mitochondrial function and energy supply impairment.

Sestrin 2 attenuates sepsis-associated encephalopathy through the promotion of autophagy in hippocampal neurons

Sepsis‐associated encephalopathy (SAE) has typically been associated with a poor prognosis. Although sestrin 2 (SESN2) plays a crucial role in metabolic regulation and the stress response, its expression and functional roles in SAE are still unclear. In the present study, SAE was established in mice through caecal ligation and puncture (CLP). The adeno‐associated virus 2 (AAV2)‐mediated SESN2 expression (ie overexpression and knockdown) system was injected into the hippocampi of mice with SAE, and subsequently followed by electron microscopic analysis, the Morris water maze task and pathological examination. Our results demonstrated an increase of SESN2 in the hippocampal neurons of mice with SAE, 2‐16 hours following CLP. AAV2‐mediated ectopic expression of SESN2 attenuated brain damage and loss of learning and memory functions in mice with SAE, and these effects were associated with lower pro‐inflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus. Mechanistically, SESN2 promoted unc‐51‐like kinase 1 (ULK1)‐dependent autophagy in hippocampal neurons through the activation of the AMPK/mTOR signalling pathway. Finally, AMPK inhibition by SBI‐0206965 blocked SESN2‐mediated attenuation of SAE in mice. In conclusion, our findings demonstrated that SESN2 might be a novel pharmacological intervention strategy for SAE treatment through promotion of ULK1‐dependent autophagy in hippocampal neurons.

Down-regulation of AMPK signaling pathway rescues hearing loss in TFB1 transgenic mice and delays age-related hearing loss

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) integrates the regulation of cell growth and metabolism. AMPK activation occurs in response to cellular energy decline and mitochondrial dysfunction triggered by reactive oxygen species (ROS). In aged Tg-mtTFB1 mice, a mitochondrial deafness mouse model, hearing loss is accompanied with cochlear pathology including reduced endocochlear potential (EP) and loss of spiral ganglion neurons (SGN), inner hair cell (IHC) synapses and outer hair cells (OHC). Accumulated ROS and increased apoptosis signaling were also detected in cochlear tissues, accompanied by activation of AMPK. To further explore the role of AMPK signaling in the auditory phenotype, we used genetically knocked out AMPKα1 as a rescue to Tg-mtTFB1 mice and observed: improved ABR wave I, EP and IHC function, normal SGNs, IHC synapses morphology and OHC survivals, with decreased ROS, reduced pro-apoptotic signaling (Bax) and increased anti-apoptotic signaling (Bcl-2) in the cochlear tissues, indicating that reduced AMPK attenuated apoptosis via ROS-AMPK-Bcl2 pathway in the cochlea. To conclude, AMPK hyperactivation causes accelerated presbycusis in Tg-mtTFB1 mice by redox imbalance and dysregulation of the apoptosis pathway. The effects of AMPK downregulation on pro-survival function and reduction of oxidative stress indicate AMPK serves as a target to rescue or relieve mitochondrial hearing loss.

Cigarette smoke exposure induces ROS-mediated autophagy by regulating sestrin, AMPK, and mTOR level in mice

Many pathological conditions linked to cigarette smoking are caused by the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The present study was conducted to analyze the effect of ROS on the lungs of Swiss mice exposed to cigarette smoking, focusing on autophagy-mediated mechanisms, and investigate the involvement of SESN2, AMPK, and mTOR signaling. Mice were exposed to cigarette smoke (CS) for 7, 15, 30, 45, and 60 days; the control group was not exposed to CS. Only mice exposed to CS for 45 days were selected for subsequent N-acetylcysteine (NAC) supplementation and smoke cessation analyses. Exposure to CS increased the production of ROS and induced molecular changes in the autophagy pathway, including an increase in phosphorylated AMPK and ULK1, reduction in phosphorylated mTOR, and increases in SESN2, ATG12, and LC3B levels. NAC supplementation reduced ROS levels and reversed all molecular changes observed upon CS treatment, suggesting the involvement of oxidative stress in inducing autophagy upon CS exposure. When exposure to CS was stopped, there were decreases in the levels of oxidative stress, AMPK and ULK1 phosphorylation, and autophagy-initiating molecules and increase in mTOR phosphorylation. In conclusion, these results suggest the involvement of ROS, SESN2, AMPK, and mTOR in the CS-induced autophagic process in the lung.

Emerging Roles of Sestrins in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Counteracting Oxidative Stress and Beyond

Low levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are critical for the operation of regular neuronal function. However, heightened oxidative stress with increased contents of oxidation markers in DNA, lipids, and proteins with compromised antioxidant capacity may play a harmful role in the brain and may be implicated in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases. Sestrins, a family of evolutionarily-conserved stress-inducible proteins, are actively regulated by assorted stresses, such as DNA damage, hypoxia, and oxidative stress. Three highly homologous genes that encode sestrin1, sestrin2, and sestrin3 proteins exist in the genomes of vertebrates. Under stressful conditions, sestrins are activated with versatile functions to cope with different types of stimuli. A growing body of evidence suggests that sestrins, especially sestrin2, can counteract oxidative stress, lessen mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) expression, and promote cell survival, thereby playing a critical role in aging-related disorders including neurodegeneration. Strategies capable of augmenting sestrin expression may; thus, facilitate cell adaptation to stressful conditions or environments through stimulation of antioxidant response and autophagy process, which may carry clinical significance in neurodegenerative diseases.

Sestrins at the Interface of ROS Control and Autophagy Regulation in Health and Disease

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and autophagy are two highly complex and interrelated components of cell physiopathology, but our understanding of their integration and their contribution to cell homeostasis and disease is still limited. Sestrins (SESNs) belong to a family of highly conserved stress-inducible proteins that orchestrate antioxidant and autophagy-regulating functions protecting cells from various noxious stimuli, including DNA damage, oxidative stress, hypoxia, and metabolic stress. They are also relevant modulators of metabolism as positive regulators of the key energy sensor AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK) and inhibitors of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1). Since perturbations in these pathways are central to multiple disorders, SESNs might constitute potential novel therapeutic targets of broad interest. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of regulatory and effector networks of SESNs, highlighting their significance as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for different diseases, such as aging-related diseases, metabolic disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer.

Toward Cochlear Therapies

Sensorineural hearing impairment is the most common sensory disorder and a major health and socio-economic issue in industrialized countries. It is primarily due to the degeneration of mechanosensory hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons in the cochlea via complex pathophysiological mechanisms. These occur following acute and/or chronic exposure to harmful extrinsic (e.g., ototoxic drugs, noise...) and intrinsic (e.g., aging, genetic) causative factors. No clinical therapies currently exist to rescue the dying sensorineural cells or regenerate these cells once lost. Recent studies have, however, provided renewed hope, with insights into the therapeutic targets allowing the prevention and treatment of ototoxic drug- and noise-induced, age-related hearing loss as well as cochlear cell degeneration. Moreover, genetic routes involving the replacement or corrective editing of mutant sequences or defected genes are showing promise, as are cell-replacement therapies to repair damaged cells for the future restoration of hearing in deaf people. This review begins by recapitulating our current understanding of the molecular pathways that underlie cochlear sensorineural damage, as well as the survival signaling pathways that can provide endogenous protection and tissue rescue. It then guides the reader through to the recent discoveries in pharmacological, gene and cell therapy research towards hearing protection and restoration as well as their potential clinical application.

Tuberous sclerosis complex-mediated mTORC1 overactivation promotes age-related hearing loss

The underlying molecular mechanisms of age-related hearing loss (ARHL) in humans and many strains of mice have not been fully characterized. This common age-related disorder is assumed to be closely associated with oxidative stress. Here, we demonstrate that mTORC1 signaling is highly and specifically activated in the cochlear neurosensory epithelium (NSE) in aging mice, and rapamycin injection prevents ARHL. To further examine the specific role of mTORC1 signaling in ARHL, we generated murine models with NSE-specific deletions of Raptor or Tsc1, regulators of mTORC1 signaling. Raptor-cKO mice developed hearing loss considerably more slowly than WT littermates. Conversely, Tsc1 loss led to the early-onset death of cochlear hair cells and consequently accelerated hearing loss. Tsc1-cKO cochleae showed features of oxidative stress and impaired antioxidant defenses. Treatment with rapamycin and the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine rescued Tsc1-cKO hair cells from injury in vivo. In addition, we identified the peroxisome as the initial signaling organelle involved in the regulation of mTORC1 signaling in cochlear hair cells. In summary, our findings identify overactive mTORC1 signaling as one of the critical causes of ARHL and suggest that reduction of mTORC1 activity in cochlear hair cells may be a potential strategy to prevent ARHL.

CA1 pyramidal neuron gene expression mosaics in the Ts65Dn murine model of Down syndrome and Alzheimer's disease following maternal choline supplementation

Although there are changes in gene expression and alterations in neuronal density and afferent inputs in the forebrain of trisomic mouse models of Down syndrome (DS) and Alzheimer's disease (AD), there is a lack of systematic assessments of gene expression and encoded proteins within individual vulnerable cell populations, precluding translational investigations at the molecular and cellular level. Further, no effective treatment exists to combat intellectual disability and basal forebrain cholinergic neurodegeneration seen in DS. To further our understanding of gene expression changes before and following cholinergic degeneration in a well-established mouse model of DS/AD, the Ts65Dn mouse, we assessed RNA expression levels from CA1 pyramidal neurons at two adult ages (∼6 months of age and ∼11 months of age) in both Ts65Dn and their normal disomic (2N) littermates. We further examined a therapeutic intervention, maternal choline supplementation (MCS), which has been previously shown to lessen dysfunction in spatial cognition and attention, and have protective effects on the survival of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in the Ts65Dn mouse model. Results indicate that MCS normalized expression of several genes in key gene ontology categories, including synaptic plasticity, calcium signaling, and AD-associated neurodegeneration related to amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) clearance. Specifically, normalized expression levels were found for endothelin converting enzyme-2 (Ece2), insulin degrading enzyme (Ide), Dyrk1a, and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (Camk2a), among other relevant genes. Single population expression profiling of vulnerable CA1 pyramidal neurons indicates that MCS is a viable therapeutic for long-term reprogramming of key transcripts involved in neuronal signaling that are dysregulated in the trisomic mouse brain which have translational potential for DS and AD.