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Padberg GW. 26 th Meryon Lecture St Anne's College, Oxford, 5th July 2024: FSHD: The long road to DUX4. Neuromuscul Disord 2024:S0960-8966(24)00931-3. [PMID: 39256100 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmd.2024.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2024]
Abstract
This Meryon lecture aims to document the history of the discovery of the gene for Facioscapulohumeral Disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- George W Padberg
- Department of Neurology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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2
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How Far Are Non-Viral Vectors to Come of Age and Reach Clinical Translation in Gene Therapy? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22147545. [PMID: 34299164 PMCID: PMC8304344 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Efficient delivery of genetic material into cells is a critical process to translate gene therapy into clinical practice. In this sense, the increased knowledge acquired during past years in the molecular biology and nanotechnology fields has contributed to the development of different kinds of non-viral vector systems as a promising alternative to virus-based gene delivery counterparts. Consequently, the development of non-viral vectors has gained attention, and nowadays, gene delivery mediated by these systems is considered as the cornerstone of modern gene therapy due to relevant advantages such as low toxicity, poor immunogenicity and high packing capacity. However, despite these relevant advantages, non-viral vectors have been poorly translated into clinical success. This review addresses some critical issues that need to be considered for clinical practice application of non-viral vectors in mainstream medicine, such as efficiency, biocompatibility, long-lasting effect, route of administration, design of experimental condition or commercialization process. In addition, potential strategies for overcoming main hurdles are also addressed. Overall, this review aims to raise awareness among the scientific community and help researchers gain knowledge in the design of safe and efficient non-viral gene delivery systems for clinical applications to progress in the gene therapy field.
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Karpukhina A, Tiukacheva E, Dib C, Vassetzky YS. Control of DUX4 Expression in Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy and Cancer. Trends Mol Med 2021; 27:588-601. [PMID: 33863674 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2021.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
DUX4, a gene encoding a transcription factor involved in early embryogenesis, is located within the D4Z4 subtelomeric repeat on chromosome 4q35. In most healthy somatic tissues, DUX4 is heavily repressed by multiple genetic and epigenetic mechanisms, and its aberrant expression is linked to facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) where it has been extensively studied. Recently, DUX4 expression has been implicated in oncogenesis, although this is much less explored. In this review, we discuss multiple levels of control of DUX4 expression, including enhancer-promoter interactions, DNA methylation, histone modifications, noncoding RNAs, and telomere positioning effect. We also connect disparate data on intrachromosomal contacts involving DUX4 and emphasize the feedback loops in DUX4 regulation. Finally, we bridge data on DUX4 in FSHD and cancer and discuss prospective approaches for future FSHD therapies and the potential outcomes of DUX4 inhibition in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Karpukhina
- UMR 9018, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif F-94805, France; Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology, Moscow 117334, Russia; Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Eugenia Tiukacheva
- UMR 9018, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif F-94805, France
| | - Carla Dib
- UMR 9018, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif F-94805, France; Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305-510, USA
| | - Yegor S Vassetzky
- UMR 9018, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif F-94805, France; Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology, Moscow 117334, Russia.
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Buckley MA, Woods NT, Tyrer JP, Mendoza-Fandiño G, Lawrenson K, Hazelett DJ, Najafabadi HS, Gjyshi A, Carvalho RS, Lyra PC, Coetzee SG, Shen HC, Yang AW, Earp MA, Yoder SJ, Risch H, Chenevix-Trench G, Ramus SJ, Phelan CM, Coetzee GA, Noushmehr H, Hughes TR, Sellers TA, Goode EL, Pharoah PD, Gayther SA, Monteiro ANA. Functional Analysis and Fine Mapping of the 9p22.2 Ovarian Cancer Susceptibility Locus. Cancer Res 2019; 79:467-481. [PMID: 30487138 PMCID: PMC6359979 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-17-3864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Revised: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies have identified 40 ovarian cancer risk loci. However, the mechanisms underlying these associations remain elusive. In this study, we conducted a two-pronged approach to identify candidate causal SNPs and assess underlying biological mechanisms at chromosome 9p22.2, the first and most statistically significant associated locus for ovarian cancer susceptibility. Three transcriptional regulatory elements with allele-specific effects and a scaffold/matrix attachment region were characterized and, through physical DNA interactions, BNC2 was established as the most likely target gene. We determined the consensus binding sequence for BNC2 in vitro, verified its enrichment in BNC2 ChIP-seq regions, and validated a set of its downstream target genes. Fine-mapping by dense regional genotyping in over 15,000 ovarian cancer cases and 30,000 controls identified SNPs in the scaffold/matrix attachment region as among the most likely causal variants. This study reveals a comprehensive regulatory landscape at 9p22.2 and proposes a likely mechanism of susceptibility to ovarian cancer. SIGNIFICANCE: Mapping the 9p22.2 ovarian cancer risk locus identifies BNC2 as an ovarian cancer risk gene.See related commentary by Choi and Brown, p. 439.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A Buckley
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
- University of South Florida Cancer Biology PhD Program, Tampa, Florida
| | - Nicholas T Woods
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
| | - Jonathan P Tyrer
- The Centre for Cancer Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Gustavo Mendoza-Fandiño
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
| | - Kate Lawrenson
- Women's Cancer Program at the Samuel Oschin Comprehensive, Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
| | - Dennis J Hazelett
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California
- Department of Urology, University of Southern California Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
| | - Hamed S Najafabadi
- Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Anxhela Gjyshi
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
- University of South Florida Cancer Biology PhD Program, Tampa, Florida
| | - Renato S Carvalho
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
| | - Paulo C Lyra
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
| | - Simon G Coetzee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
| | - Howard C Shen
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California
| | - Ally W Yang
- Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Madalene A Earp
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Science Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Sean J Yoder
- Molecular Genomics Core, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
| | - Harvey Risch
- Department of Chronic Disease Epidemiology, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | - Susan J Ramus
- School of Women's and Children's Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- The Kinghorn Cancer Center, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Darlinghurst, Australia
| | - Catherine M Phelan
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
| | - Gerhard A Coetzee
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California
- Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan
| | - Houtan Noushmehr
- Department of Neurosurgery, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Timothy R Hughes
- Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Canadian Institutes for Advanced Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Thomas A Sellers
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
| | - Ellen L Goode
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Science Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Paul D Pharoah
- The Centre for Cancer Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Simon A Gayther
- Women's Cancer Program at the Samuel Oschin Comprehensive, Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
- Center for Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
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A Dynamic Cis-Regulation Pattern Underlying Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Susceptibility. Cancer Res 2019; 79:439-440. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-18-3938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Transformation-induced changes in the DNA-nuclear matrix interface, revealed by high-throughput analysis of DNA halos. Sci Rep 2017; 7:6475. [PMID: 28743923 PMCID: PMC5526987 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-06459-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In higher eukaryotic nuclei, DNA is periodically anchored to an extraction-resistant protein structure, via matrix attachment regions. We describe a refined and accessible method to non-subjectively, rapidly and reproducibly measure both size and stability of the intervening chromatin loops, and use it to demonstrate that malignant transformation compromises the DNA-nuclear matrix interface.
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Saada YB, Dib C, Lipinski M, Vassetzky YS. Genome- and Cell-Based Strategies in Therapy of Muscular Dystrophies. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2017; 81:678-90. [PMID: 27449614 DOI: 10.1134/s000629791607004x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Muscular dystrophies are a group of heterogeneous genetic disorders characterized by progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass. Depending on the muscular dystrophy, the muscle weakness varies in degree of severity. The majority of myopathies are due to genetic events leading to a loss of function of key genes involved in muscle function. Although there is until now no curative treatment to stop the progression of most myopathies, a significant number of experimental gene- and cell-based strategies and approaches have been and are being tested in vitro and in animal models, aiming to restore gene function. Genome editing using programmable endonucleases is a powerful tool for modifying target genome sequences and has been extensively used over the last decade to correct in vitro genetic defects of many single-gene diseases. By inducing double-strand breaks (DSBs), the engineered endonucleases specifically target chosen sequences. These DSBs are spontaneously repaired either by homologous recombination in the presence of a sequence template, or by nonhomologous-end joining error prone repair. In this review, we highlight recent developments and challenges for genome-editing based strategies that hold great promise for muscular dystrophies and regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Bou Saada
- UMR 8126, CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, Université Paris Saclay, Institut de Cancérologie Gustave-Roussy, Villejuif, F-94805, France.
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Dumler JS, Sinclair SH, Pappas-Brown V, Shetty AC. Genome-Wide Anaplasma phagocytophilum AnkA-DNA Interactions Are Enriched in Intergenic Regions and Gene Promoters and Correlate with Infection-Induced Differential Gene Expression. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2016; 6:97. [PMID: 27703927 PMCID: PMC5028410 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2016.00097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum, an obligate intracellular prokaryote, infects neutrophils, and alters cardinal functions via reprogrammed transcription. Large contiguous regions of neutrophil chromosomes are differentially expressed during infection. Secreted A. phagocytophilum effector AnkA transits into the neutrophil or granulocyte nucleus to complex with DNA in heterochromatin across all chromosomes. AnkA binds to gene promoters to dampen cis-transcription and also has features of matrix attachment region (MAR)-binding proteins that regulate three-dimensional chromatin architecture and coordinate transcriptional programs encoded in topologically-associated chromatin domains. We hypothesize that identification of additional AnkA binding sites will better delineate how A. phagocytophilum infection results in reprogramming of the neutrophil genome. Using AnkA-binding ChIP-seq, we showed that AnkA binds broadly throughout all chromosomes in a reproducible pattern, especially at: (i) intergenic regions predicted to be MARs; (ii) within predicted lamina-associated domains; and (iii) at promoters ≤ 3000 bp upstream of transcriptional start sites. These findings provide genome-wide support for AnkA as a regulator of cis-gene transcription. Moreover, the dominant mark of AnkA in distal intergenic regions known to be AT-enriched, coupled with frequent enrichment in the nuclear lamina, provides strong support for its role as a MAR-binding protein and genome “re-organizer.” AnkA must be considered a prime candidate to promote neutrophil reprogramming and subsequent functional changes that belie improved microbial fitness and pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Stephen Dumler
- Department of Pathology, F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Valeria Pappas-Brown
- Department of Pathology, F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Amol C Shetty
- Informatics Resource Center, Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland Baltimore, MD, USA
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Gatica LV, Rosa AL. A complex interplay of genetic and epigenetic events leads to abnormal expression of the DUX4 gene in facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy. Neuromuscul Disord 2016; 26:844-852. [PMID: 27816329 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmd.2016.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD), a prevalent inherited human myopathy, develops following a complex interplay of genetic and epigenetic events. FSHD1, the more frequent genetic form, is associated with: (1) deletion of an integral number of 3.3 Kb (D4Z4) repeated elements at the chromosomal region 4q35, (2) a specific 4q35 subtelomeric haplotype denominated 4qA, and (3) decreased methylation of cytosines at the 4q35-linked D4Z4 units. FSHD2 is most often caused by mutations at the SMCHD1 (Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes Hinge Domain 1) gene, on chromosome 18p11.32. FSHD2 individuals also carry the 4qA haplotype and decreased methylation of D4Z4 cytosines. Each D4Z4 unit contains a copy of the retrotransposed gene DUX4 (double homeobox containing protein 4). DUX4 gene functionality was questioned in the past because of its pseudogene-like structure, its location on repetitive telomeric DNA sequences (i.e. junk DNA), and the elusive nature of both the DUX4 transcript and the encoded protein, DUX4. It is now known that DUX4 is a nuclear-located transcription factor, which is normally expressed in germinal tissues. Aberrant DUX4 expression triggers a deregulation cascade inhibiting muscle differentiation, sensitizing cells to oxidative stress, and inducing muscle atrophy. A unifying pathogenic model for FSHD emerged with the recognition that the FSHD-permissive 4qA haplotype corresponds to a polyadenylation signal that stabilizes the DUX4 mRNA, allowing the toxic protein DUX4 to be expressed. This working hypothesis for FSHD pathogenesis highlights the intrinsic epigenetic nature of the molecular mechanism underlying FSHD as well as the pathogenic pathway connecting FSHD1 and FSHD2. Pharmacological control of either DUX4 gene expression or the activity of the DUX4 protein constitutes current potential rational therapeutic approaches to treat FSHD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alberto Luis Rosa
- Laboratorio de Biología Celular y Molecular, Fundación Allende, Argentina; Servicio de Genética Médica y Laboratorio Diagnóstico Biología Molecular, Sanatorio Allende, Córdoba, Argentina; Laboratorio de Genética y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Católica de Córdoba, Argentina.
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Dib C, Saada YB, Dmitriev P, Richon C, Dessen P, Laoudj-Chenivesse D, Carnac G, Lipinski M, Vassetzky YS. Correction of the FSHD myoblast differentiation defect by fusion with healthy myoblasts. J Cell Physiol 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.25110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carla Dib
- UMR 8126, University of Paris-Sud, CNRS; Institut de Cancérologie Gustave-Roussy; F-94805 Villejuif France
| | - Yara Bou Saada
- UMR 8126, University of Paris-Sud, CNRS; Institut de Cancérologie Gustave-Roussy; F-94805 Villejuif France
| | - Petr Dmitriev
- UMR 8126, University of Paris-Sud, CNRS; Institut de Cancérologie Gustave-Roussy; F-94805 Villejuif France
| | - Catherine Richon
- Functional Genomics Unit; Institut de Cancérologie Gustave-Roussy; F-94805 Villejuif France
| | - Philippe Dessen
- Functional Genomics Unit; Institut de Cancérologie Gustave-Roussy; F-94805 Villejuif France
| | | | - Gilles Carnac
- INSERM U-1046; 371 Avenue du Doyen Gaston Giraud; F-34295 Montpellier France
| | - Marc Lipinski
- UMR 8126, University of Paris-Sud, CNRS; Institut de Cancérologie Gustave-Roussy; F-94805 Villejuif France
| | - Yegor S. Vassetzky
- UMR 8126, University of Paris-Sud, CNRS; Institut de Cancérologie Gustave-Roussy; F-94805 Villejuif France
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Harraghy N, Calabrese D, Fisch I, Girod PA, LeFourn V, Regamey A, Mermod N. Epigenetic regulatory elements: Recent advances in understanding their mode of action and use for recombinant protein production in mammalian cells. Biotechnol J 2015; 10:967-78. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201400649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Revised: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Himeda CL, Jones TI, Jones PL. Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy as a model for epigenetic regulation and disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2015; 22:1463-82. [PMID: 25336259 PMCID: PMC4432493 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2014.6090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Aberrant epigenetic regulation is an integral aspect of many diseases and complex disorders. Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD), a progressive myopathy that afflicts individuals of all ages, is caused by disrupted genetic and epigenetic regulation of a macrosatellite repeat. FSHD provides a powerful model to investigate disease-relevant epigenetic modifiers and general mechanisms of epigenetic regulation that govern gene expression. RECENT ADVANCES In the context of a genetically permissive allele, the one aspect of FSHD that is consistent across all known cases is the aberrant epigenetic state of the disease locus. In addition, certain mutations in the chromatin regulator SMCHD1 (structural maintenance of chromosomes hinge-domain protein 1) are sufficient to cause FSHD2 and enhance disease severity in FSHD1. Thus, there are multiple pathways to generate the epigenetic dysregulation required for FSHD. CRITICAL ISSUES Why do some individuals with the genetic requirements for FSHD develop disease pathology, while others remain asymptomatic? Similarly, disease progression is highly variable among individuals. What are the relative contributions of genetic background and environmental factors in determining disease manifestation, progression, and severity in FSHD? What is the interplay between epigenetic factors regulating the disease locus and which, if any, are viable therapeutic targets? FUTURE DIRECTIONS Epigenetic regulation represents a potentially powerful therapeutic target for FSHD. Determining the epigenetic signatures that are predictive of disease severity and identifying the spectrum of disease modifiers in FSHD are vital to the development of effective therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charis L Himeda
- The Wellstone Program and the Departments of Cell and Developmental Biology and Neurology, University of Massachusetts Medical School , Worcester, Massachusetts
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Turan S, Qiao J, Madden S, Benham C, Kotz M, Schambach A, Bode J. Expanding Flp-RMCE options: the potential of Recombinase Mediated Twin-Site Targeting (RMTT). Gene 2014; 546:135-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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