Muscle lipids in Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Lipidomic Analyses Reveal Specific Alterations of Phosphatidylcholine in Dystrophic Mdx Muscle

In Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), lack of dystrophin increases the permeability of myofiber plasma membranes to ions and larger macromolecules, disrupting calcium signaling and leading to progressive muscle wasting. Although the biological origin and meaning are unclear, alterations of phosphatidylcholine (PC) are reported in affected skeletal muscles of patients with DMD that may include higher levels of fatty acid (FA) 18:1 chains and lower levels of FA 18:2 chains, possibly reflected in relatively high levels of PC 34:1 (with 16:0_18:1 chain sets) and low levels of PC 34:2 (with 16:0_18:2 chain sets). Similar PC alterations have been reported to occur in the mdx mouse model of DMD. However, altered ratios of PC 34:1 to PC 34:2 have been variably reported, and we also observed that PC 34:2 levels were nearly equally elevated as PC 34:1 in the affected mdx muscles. We hypothesized that experimental factors that often varied between studies; including muscle types sampled, mouse ages, and mouse diets; may strongly impact the PC alterations detected in dystrophic muscle of mdx mice, especially the PC 34:1 to PC 34:2 ratios. In order to test our hypothesis, we performed comprehensive lipidomic analyses of PC and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) in several muscles (extensor digitorum longus, gastrocnemius, and soleus) and determined the mdx-specific alterations. The alterations in PC 34:1 and PC 34:2 were closely monitored from the neonate period to the adult, and also in mice raised on several diets that varied in their fats. PC 34:1 was naturally high in neonate’s muscle and decreased until age ∼3-weeks (disease onset age), and thereafter remained low in WT muscles but was higher in regenerated mdx muscles. Among the muscle types, soleus showed a distinctive phospholipid pattern with early and diminished mdx alterations. Diet was a major factor to impact PC 34:1/PC 34:2 ratios because mdx-specific alterations of PC 34:2 but not PC 34:1 were strictly dependent on diet. Our study identifies high PC 34:1 as a consistent biochemical feature of regenerated mdx-muscle and indicates nutritional approaches are also effective to modify the phospholipid compositions.

Plasma lipidomic analysis shows a disease progression signature in mdx mice

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a rare genetic disorder affecting paediatric patients. The disease course is characterized by loss of muscle mass, which is rapidly substituted by fibrotic and adipose tissue. Clinical and preclinical models have clarified the processes leading to muscle damage and myofiber degeneration. Analysis of the fat component is however emerging as more evidence shows how muscle fat fraction is associated with patient performance and prognosis. In this article we aimed to study whether alterations exist in the composition of lipids in plasma samples obtained from mouse models. Analysis of plasma samples was performed in 4 mouse models of DMD and wild-type mice by LC–MS. Longitudinal samplings of individual mice covering an observational period of 7 months were obtained to cover the different phases of the disease. We report clear elevation of glycerolipids and glycerophospholipids families in dystrophic mice compared to healthy mice. Triacylglycerols were the strongest contributors to the signatures in mice. Annotation of individual lipids confirmed the elevation of lipids belonging to these families as strongest discriminants between healthy and dystrophic mice. A few sphingolipids (such as ganglioside GM2, sphingomyelin and ceramide), sterol lipids (such as cholesteryl oleate and cholesteryl arachidonate) and a fatty acyl (stearic acid) were also found to be affected in dystrophic mice. Analysis of serum and plasma samples show how several lipids are affected in dystrophic mice affected by muscular dystrophy. This study sets the basis to further investigations to understand how the lipid signature relates to the disease biology and muscle performance.

Muscle metabolic remodelling patterns in Duchenne muscular dystrophy revealed by ultra-high-resolution mass spectrometry imaging

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a common and severe X-linked myopathy, characterized by muscle degeneration due to altered or absent dystrophin. DMD has no effective cure, and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain incompletely understood. The aim of this study is to investigate the metabolic changes in DMD using mass spectrometry-based imaging. Nine human muscle biopsies from DMD patients and nine muscle biopsies from control individuals were subjected to untargeted MSI using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry. Both univariate and pattern recognition techniques have been used for data analysis. This study revealed significant changes in 34 keys metabolites. Seven metabolites were decreased in the Duchenne biopsies compared to control biopsies including adenosine triphosphate, and glycerophosphocholine. The other 27 metabolites were increased in the Duchenne biopsies, including sphingomyelin, phosphatidylcholines, phosphatidic acids and phosphatidylserines. Most of these dysregulated metabolites are tightly related to energy and phospholipid metabolism. This study revealed a deep metabolic remodelling in phospholipids and energy metabolism in DMD. This systems-based approach enabled exploring the metabolism in DMD in an unprecedented holistic and unbiased manner with hypothesis-free strategies.

Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy and Skeletal Muscle Dystrophies: Shared Histopathological Features and Pathogenic Mechanisms

Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM) is a heritable cardiac disease characterized by fibrotic or fibrofatty myocardial replacement, associated with an increased risk of ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. Originally described as a disease of the right ventricle, ACM is currently recognized as a biventricular entity, due to the increasing numbers of reports of predominant left ventricular or biventricular involvement. Research over the last 20 years has significantly advanced our knowledge of the etiology and pathogenesis of ACM. Several etiopathogenetic theories have been proposed; among them, the most attractive one is the dystrophic theory, based on the observation of similar histopathological features between ACM and skeletal muscle dystrophies (SMDs), such as progressive muscular degeneration, inflammation, and tissue replacement by fatty and fibrous tissue. This review will describe the pathophysiological and molecular similarities shared by ACM with SMDs.

Abnormal lipid metabolism in skeletal muscle tissue of patients with muscular dystrophy: In vitro, high-resolution NMR spectroscopy based observation in early phase of the disease

PURPOSE

Qualitative (assignment of lipid components) and quantitative (quantification of lipid components) analysis of lipid components were performed in skeletal muscle tissue of patients with muscular dystrophy in early phase of the disease as compared to control/normal subjects.

METHODS

Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy based experiment was performed on the lipid extract of skeletal muscle tissue of patients with muscular dystrophy in early phase of the disease and normal individuals for the analysis of lipid components [triglycerides, phospholipids, total cholesterol and unsaturated fatty acids (arachidonic, linolenic and linoleic acid)]. Specimens of muscle tissue were obtained from patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) [n=11; Age, Mean±SD; 9.2±1.4years; all were males], Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) [n=12; Age, Mean±SD; 21.4±5.0years; all were males], facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) [n=11; Age, Mean±SD; 23.7±7.5years; all were males] and limb girdle muscular dystrophy-2B (LGMD-2B) [n=18; Age, Mean±SD; 24.2±4.1years; all were males]. Muscle specimens were also obtained from [n=30; Mean age±SD 23.1±6.0years; all were males] normal/control subjects.

RESULTS

Assigned lipid components in skeletal muscle tissue were triglycerides (TG), phospholipids (PL), total cholesterol (CHOL) and unsaturated fatty acids (arachidonic, linolenic and linoleic acid)]. Quantity of lipid components was observed in skeletal muscle tissue of DMD, BMD, FSHD and LGMD-2B patients as compared to control/normal subjects. TG was significantly elevated in muscle tissue of DMD, BMD and LGMD-2B patients. Increase level of CHOL was found only in muscle of DMD patients. Level of PL was found insignificant for DMD, BMD and LGMD-2B patients. Quantity of TG, PL and CHOL was unaltered in the muscle of patients with FSHD as compared to control/normal subjects. Linoleic acids were significantly reduced in muscle tissue of DMD, BMD, FSHD and LGMD-2B as compared to normal/control individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

Results clearly indicate alteration of lipid metabolism in patients with muscular dystrophy in early phase of the disease. Moreover, further evaluation is required to understand whether these changes are primary or secondary to muscular dystrophy. In future, these findings may prove an additional and improved approach for the diagnosis of different forms of muscular dystrophy.

Compared with that of MUFA, a high dietary intake of n-3 PUFA does not reduce the degree of pathology in mdx mice

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe muscle disease that affects afflicted males from a young age, and the mdx mouse is an animal model of this disease. Although new drugs are in development, it is also essential to assess potential dietary therapies that could assist in the management of DMD. In the present study, we compared two diets, high-MUFA diet v. high-PUFA diet, in mdx mice. To generate the high-PUFA diet, a portion of dietary MUFA (oleic acid) was replaced with the dietary essential n-3 PUFA α-linolenic acid (ALA). We sought to determine whether ALA, compared with oleic acid, was beneficial in mdx mice. Consumption of the high-PUFA diet resulted in significantly higher n-3 PUFA content and reduced arachidonic acid content in skeletal muscle phospholipids (PL), while the high-MUFA diet led to higher oleate content in PL. Mdx mice on the high-MUFA diet exhibited 2-fold lower serum creatine kinase activity than those on the high-PUFA diet (P< 0·05) as well as a lower body fat percentage (P< 0·05), but no significant difference in skeletal muscle histopathology results. There was no significant difference between the dietary groups with regard to phosphorylated p65 (an inflammatory marker) in skeletal muscle. In conclusion, alteration of PL fatty acid (FA) composition by the high-PUFA diet made mdx muscle more susceptible to sarcolemmal leakiness, while the high-MUFA diet exhibited a more favourable impact. These results may be important for designing dietary treatments for DMD patients, and future work on dietary FA profiles, such as comparing other FA classes and dose effects, is needed.

Fatty acid profile of skeletal muscle phospholipid is altered in mdx mice and is predictive of disease markers

The mdx mouse is a model for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. The fatty acid (FA) composition in dystrophic muscle could potentially impact the disease severity. We tested FA profiles in skeletal muscle phospholipid (PL) and triglyceride in mdx and control (con) mice to assess associations with disease state as well as correlations with grip strength (which is lower in mdx) and serum creatine kinase (CK, which is elevated in mdx). Compared with con, mdx PL contained less docosahexaenoic acid (P < .001) and more linoleic acid (P = .001). Docosahexaenoic acid contents did not correlate with strength or serum CK. Linoleic acid content in PL was positively correlated with CK in mdx (P < .05) but not con. α-Linolenic acid content in PL was positively correlated with strength in mdx (P < .05) but not con. The FA profile in triglyceride showed less difference between groups and far less predictive ability for disease markers. We conclude that profiling the FA composition of tissue lipids (particularly PL) can be a useful strategy for generating novel biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets in muscle diseases and likely other pathological conditions as well. Specifically, the present results have indicated potential benefits of raising content of particular n-3 FAs (especially α-linolenic acid) and reducing content of particular n-6 FAs (linoleic acid) in PL of dystrophic muscle.

Delineating the role of alterations in lipid metabolism to the pathogenesis of inherited skeletal and cardiac muscle disorders: Thematic Review Series: Genetics of Human Lipid Diseases

As the specific composition of lipids is essential for the maintenance of membrane integrity, enzyme function, ion channels, and membrane receptors, an alteration in lipid composition or metabolism may be one of the crucial changes occurring during skeletal and cardiac myopathies. Although the inheritance (autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked traits) and underlying/defining mutations causing these myopathies are known, the contribution of lipid homeostasis in the progression of these diseases needs to be established. The purpose of this review is to present the current knowledge relating to lipid changes in inherited skeletal muscle disorders, such as Duchenne/Becker muscular dystrophy, myotonic muscular dystrophy, limb-girdle myopathic dystrophies, desminopathies, rostrocaudal muscular dystrophy, and Dunnigan-type familial lipodystrophy. The lipid modifications in familial hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathies, as well as Barth syndrome and several other cardiac disorders associated with abnormal lipid storage, are discussed. Information on lipid alterations occurring in these myopathies will aid in the design of improved methods of screening and therapy in children and young adults with or without a family history of genetic diseases.

MALDI reveals membrane lipid profile reversion in MDX mice

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), the most common and severe X-linked myopathy, is characterized by the lack of dystrophin, a sub-sarcolemmal protein necessary for normal muscle functions. In a previous study of the lipid content of skeletal muscles of dystrophic (mdx) mice, the animal model for DMD, by in situ Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption-Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS), an inversion of the phosphatidylcholine PC34:2/PC34:1 ion peaks intensity ratio was observed between destructured (abnormal fiber morphology) and structured (normal fiber morphology). A possible treatment for this dramatic disease is to introduce an exogenous nitric oxide (NO) donor into the organism, leading to an increase of utrophin and a regression of the dystrophic phenotype. In the present work, after confirmation by tandem mass spectrometry of the structure of these two phospholipids, their intensity ratio inversion was used to evidence a restoration of membrane lipid composition very similar to those of wild-type mice after the treatment of mdx mice with molsidomine, a NO donor. This was associated with the observation by immunohistology of an increase of the regeneration process in the mice.

Lipid mapping in human dystrophic muscle by cluster-time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging

Human striated muscle samples, from male control and Duchenne muscular dystrophy-affected children, were subjected to cluster-time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (cluster-ToF-SIMS) imaging using a 25 keV Bi(3)(+) liquid metal ion gun under static SIMS conditions. Spectra and ion density maps, or secondary ion images, were acquired in both positive and negative ion mode over several areas of 500 x 500 microm(2) (image resolution, 256 x 256 pixels). Characteristic distributions of various lipids were observed. Vitamin E and phosphatidylinositols were found to concentrate within the cells, whereas intact phosphocholines accumulated over the most damaged areas of the dystrophic muscles, together with cholesterol and sphingomyelin species. Fatty acyl chain composition varied depending on the region, allowing estimation of the local damage extent.

Exercise and training effects on ceramide metabolism in human skeletal muscle

In rat skeletal muscle prolonged exercise affects the content and composition of ceramides, but in human skeletal muscle no data are available on this compound. Our aim was to examine the content of ceramide- and sphingomyelin fatty acids and neutral, Mg(2+)-dependent sphingomyelinase activity in skeletal muscle in untrained and trained subjects before and after prolonged exercise. Healthy male subjects were recruited into an untrained (n = 8, VO2,max 3.8 +/- 0.2 1 min1) and a trained (n = 8, Vo2,max 5.1 +/- 0.1 1 min2) group. Before and after a 3-h exercise bout (58 +/- 1% VO2,max) a muscle biopsy was excised from the vastus lateralis. Ceramide and sphingomyelin were isolated using thin-layer chromatography. The content of individual ceramide fatty acids and sphingomyelin fatty acids was measured by means of gas-liquid chromatography. The activity of neutral, Mg(2+)-dependent sphingomyelinase was measured using N-[14CH3]-sphingomyelin as a substrate. Prior to exercise, the muscle total ceramide fatty acid content in both groups was similar (201 +/- 18 and 197 +/- 9 nmol g(-1) in the untrained and trained group, respectively) and after exercise a 25% increase in the content was observed in each group. At rest, the muscle total sphingomyelin fatty acid content was higher in untrained than in trained subjects (456 +/- 10, 407 +/- 7 nmol g(-1), respectively; P < 0.05). After exercise a 20% increase (P < 0.05) in total sphingomyelin was observed only in the trained subjects. The muscle neutral, Mg(2+)-dependent sphingomyelinase activity was similar in the two groups at rest and a similar reduction was observed after exercise in both groups (untrained from 2.19 +/- 0.08 to 1.78 +/- 0.08 and trained from 2.31 +/- 0.12 to 1.80 +/- 0.09 nmol (mg protein) (-1) h(-1); P < 0.05 in each case). In conclusion, we have reported, for the first time, the values for ceramide fatty acid content and neutral, Mg2(+)-dependent sphingomyelinase activity in human skeletal muscle. The results indicate that acute prolonged exercise affects ceramide metabolism in human skeletal muscle both in untrained and in trained subjects and this may influence muscle cell adaptation and metabolism.

Changes of phospholipid composition within the dystrophic muscle by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry and mass spectrometry imaging

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a neuromuscular disease linked to the lack of the dystrophin, a submembrane protein, leading to muscle weakness and associated with a defect of the lipid metabolism. A study of the fatty acid composition of glycerophosphatidylcholines by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-ToF-MS) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) enabled us to characterize a change of the lipid composition of dystrophic cells at the time of the differentiation. This modification has been used as a marker to identify with profiling and imaging MALDI-ToF MS regenerating areas in sections of an mdx mouse leg muscle. It is the first time that such a slight change in fatty acid composition has been observed directly on tissue slices using mass spectrometry. This approach will be useful in monitoring the treatment of muscular regeneration.

Intramyocellular lipid accumulation and reduced whole body lipid oxidation in HIV lipodystrophy

Antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive patients can induce a lipodystrophy syndrome of peripheral fat wasting and central adiposity, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance. To test whether in this syndrome insulin resistance is associated with abnormal muscle handling of fatty acids, 12 HIV-1 patients (8 females/4 males, age = 26 +/- 2 yr, HIV duration = 8 +/- 1 yr, body mass index = 22.0 +/- 1.0 kg/m(2), on protease inhibitors and nucleoside analog RT inhibitors) and 12 healthy subjects were studied. HIV-1 patients had a total body fat content (assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) similar to that of controls (22 +/- 1 vs. 23 +/- 2%; P = 0.56), with a topographic fat redistribution characterized by reduced fat content in the legs (18 +/- 2 vs. 32 +/- 3%; P < 0.01) and increased fat content in the trunk (25 +/- 2 vs. 19 +/- 2%; P = 0.03). In HIV-positive patients, insulin sensitivity (assessed by QUICKI) was markedly impaired (0.341 +/- 0.011 vs. 0.376 +/- 0.007; P = 0.012). HIV-positive patients also had increased total plasma cholesterol (216 +/- 20 vs. 174 +/- 9 mg/dl; P = 0.05) and triglyceride (298 +/- 96 vs. 87 +/- 11 mg/dl; P = 0.03) concentrations. Muscular triglyceride content assessed by means of (1)H NMR spectroscopy was higher in HIV patients in soleus [92 +/- 12 vs. 42 +/- 5 arbitrary units (AU); P < 0.01] and tibialis anterior (26 +/- 6 vs. 11 +/- 3 AU; P = 0.04) muscles; in a stepwise regression analysis, it was strongly associated with QUICKI (R(2) = 0.27; P < 0.0093). Even if the basal metabolic rate (assessed by indirect calorimetry) was comparable to that of normal subjects, postabsorptive lipid oxidation was significantly impaired (0.30 +/- 0.07 vs. 0.88 +/- 0.09 mg x kg(-1) x min(-1); P < 0.01). In conclusion, lipodystrophy in HIV-1 patients in antiretroviral treatment is associated with intramuscular fat accumulation, which may mediate the development of the insulin resistance syndrome.

Ceramides and sphingomyelins in skeletal muscles of the rat: content and composition. Effect of prolonged exercise

The sphingomyelin-signaling pathway has been described in many tissues. Ceramide is the main second messenger in this pathway. Ceramide has also been shown to be present in skeletal muscles; however, there are few data on the regulation of the content of ceramide in muscle tissue. Moreover, there are no data on the content of particular ceramides or their composition in the muscles. The aim of the present study was to examine the content and composition of fatty acids (FA) in ceramide and sphingomyelin moieties and the activity of neutral Mg(2+)-dependent sphingomyelinase in different skeletal muscle types of the rat at rest and after exhausting exercise of moderate intensity. The experiments were carried out on male Wistar rats, divided into two groups: 1) control and 2) exercised until exhaustion on a treadmill. Soleus and red and white gastrocnemius muscles were taken. Ceramide and sphingomyelin were separated by TLC. The content of individual FA in the two compounds was determined by gas-liquid chromatography. Twelve different ceramides and sphingomyelins were identified and quantified in each muscle type according to the FA residues. Saturated FA consisted of 68, 67, and 66% of total ceramide-FA and 75, 77, and 78% of total sphingomyelin-FA in soleus and red and white gastrocnemius, respectively. The total content of ceramide- and sphingomyelin-FA and the activity of sphingomyelinase were highest in the soleus and lowest in the white gastrocnemius. Exercise resulted in a reduction in the total content of ceramide- and sphingomyelin-FA in each muscle. This was accounted for mostly by a reduction in content in the amount of saturated FA. Exercise reduced the activity of neutral Mg(2+)-dependent sphingomyelinase in the soleus and red gastrocnemius and did not affect its activity in the white gastrocnemius. We conclude that the sphingomyelin-signaling pathway is present in skeletal muscles and that it is influenced by prolonged exercise.

Characterization of free and glyceride-esterified long chain fatty acids in different skeletal muscle types of the rat

The plasma-borne long-chain free fatty acids (FFA) enter skeletal muscle cells. Upon entering they are oxidized or esterified and a fraction remains free (non-esterified). The data on free fatty acids in skeletal muscles remain highly controversial. Furthermore, the composition of individual fatty acids in various lipid fractions including free fatty acids, monoglyceride and diglyceride in muscles has not been characterized. Also data on the composition of fatty acids esterified into muscle triglycerides and phospholipids are incomplete. The present study was undertaken to examine a composition of fatty acids in lipid fractions of different skeletal muscle types. For this purpose, samples of the rat soleus, red and white portions of gastrocnemius were excised, trimmed of visible fat and fascias and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen. Samples were then pulverized and, lipids were extracted and fractionated by thin-layer chromatography. Individual long-chain fatty acids in different fractions were identified, characterized and quantitated by gas-liquid chromatography. FFA composition in the plasma was also determined. The total FFA content in the soleus, red and white gastrocnemius was 69.1 +/- 10.8, 49.0 +/- 13.6 and 22.7 +/- 8.6 nmol/g, respectively. Palmitic and oleic acids were the major fatty acids in the muscles FFA fraction. Monoglyceride fraction of each muscle contained palmitic, stearic and linoleic acid as the major fatty acids, Diglyceride fraction contained mostly palmitic and oleic acid whereas triglyceride fraction mostly palmitic and linoleic acid.. The fraction of phospholipids was composed mostly of palmitic and linoleic acid but contained also considerable percentage of archidonic acid. Total plasma FFA/muscle FFA ratio depended on a muscle type and was: 2.4 in the soleus, 3.5 in the red and 7.4 in the white gastrocnemius. This assured transport of FFA to the myocytes. However, there were great differences in the ratio between particular FFA within the same muscle as well between the muscles. It indicates that individual FFA are either selectively transported from the plasma to the muscles or selectively used within the myocytes or both.

Increase by lysophosphatidylcholines of smooth muscle Ca2+ sensitivity in alpha-toxin-permeabilized small mesenteric artery from the rat

1. Pharmacological characterization of different lysophosphatidylcholines was performed based on their effect on the Ca2+ sensitivity of contraction in alpha-toxin-permeabilized rat mesenteric arteries. Furthermore, the effect of noradrenaline on [3H]-myristate-labelled lysophosphatidylcholine levels was assessed, to investigate whether lysophosphatidylcholines could be second messengers. 2. Palmitoyl or myristoyl L-alpha-lysophosphatidylcholine increased the sensitivity to Ca2+, whereas lysophosphatidylcholines containing other fatty acids had less or no effect. 3. L-alpha-phosphatidylcholine, L-alpha-glycerophosphorylcholine, palmitic acid, myristic acid and choline, potential metabolites of lysophosphatidylcholines, did not affect contractions. 4. Noradrenaline (GTP was required) and GTP gamma S increased the sensitivity to Ca2+, and GDP-beta-S inhibited the effect of noradrenaline. Lysophosphatidylcholines, however, had no requirement for GTP and caused sensitization in the presence of GDP-beta-S. 5. Calphostin C, a relatively specific protein kinase C inhibitor, did not affect contraction induced by Ca2+, but abolished the sensitizing effect of lysophosphatidylcholine. 6. Noradrenaline caused no measurable changes in the levels of [3H]-myristate-labelled phosphatidylcholine and lysophosphatidylcholine at 30 s and 5 min stimulation. 7. These results suggest that lysophosphatidylcholines can increase Ca2+ sensitivity through a G-protein-independent, but a protein kinase C-dependent mechanism. However, the role for lysophosphatidylcholines as messengers causing Ca2+ sensitization during stimulation with noradrenaline remains uncertain because no increase in [3H]-myristate labelled lysophosphatidylcholine could be measured during noradrenaline stimulation.

Acylation of lysophosphatidylcholine and glycerolphosphate and fatty acid pattern in phosphatidylcholine and -ethanolamine in microsomes of normal and dystrophic human muscle

Phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) were isolated from microsomes obtained from normal and dystrophic human muscle and the fatty acid (FA) pattern estimated by GLC. In PC a decrease of the fatty acids of 16:0 and 18:2 and an increase of 18:0 and 18:1 was observed. In PE the decrease measured 18:2 and the increase 18:0 and 18:1. The acylation of lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) and glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) was measured in a microsomal system containing exogenously added LPC or G3P and labelled palmitic and oleic acid CoA esters. The incorporation of both labelled fatty acids in LPC-forming PC is reduced in dystrophic microsomes. On the other hand the acylation of glycerolphosphate and the formation of phosphatidic acid (PA) is greater in dystrophic microsomes when compared with normal controls. Possible correlations between the shifted FA pattern and the acylation rate by dystrophic microsomes measured in vitro in the two systems are discussed.

Glycerophosphate acylation by microsomes and mitochondria of normal and dystrophic human muscle

The incorporation of [14C]glycerophosphate into phosphatidic acid, diacylglycerol, triacylglycerol and phosphatidylcholine by microsomes and mitochondria prepared from normal and dystrophic human muscle incubated in vitro in the presence of 0.3 mmol/l CDP-choline was measured. In mitochondria only phosphatidic acid and diacylglycerol are labelled; the rate of incorporation into these two compounds showed no difference between dystrophic and normal mitochondria. In dystrophic microsomes the incorporation into phosphatidic acid was delayed and decreased. No incorporation of glycerol into diacylglycerol, phosphatidylcholine and triacylglycerol could be measured. Thus in dystrophic muscle microsomes only PA was labelled during an incubation of up to 45 min. In both types of microsomes the concentration of endogenous free fatty acids and diacylglycerol was nearly identical. The level of phosphatidylcholine was 186 and 79 nmol/mg microsomal protein in normal and dystrophic muscle microsomes, respectively. Whether the results could be explained as secondary changes was discussed. Despite some unsolved problems the conclusion was drawn that a better explanation of the results is to assume a primary defect involving microsomal-bound phosphatidic acid phosphohydrolase and possibly glycerol-P-acyltransferases.