Spatial scales of bacterial community diversity at cold seeps (Eastern Mediterranean Sea)

Cold seep formation from salt diapir-controlled deep biosphere oases

Deep sea cold seeps are sites where hydrogen sulfide, methane, and other hydrocarbon-rich fluids vent from the ocean floor. They are an important component of Earth's carbon cycle in which subsurface hydrocarbons form the energy source for highly diverse benthic micro- and macro-fauna in what is otherwise vast and spartan sea scape. Passive continental margin cold seeps are typically attributed to the migration of hydrocarbons generated from deeply buried source rocks. Many of these seeps occur over salt tectonic provinces, where the movement of salt generates complex fault systems that can enable fluid migration or create seals and traps associated with reservoir formation. The elevated advective heat transport of the salt also produces a chimney effect directly over these structures. Here, we provide geophysical and geochemical evidence that the salt chimney effect in conjunction with diapiric faulting drives a subsurface groundwater circulation system that brings dissolved inorganic carbon, nutrient-rich deep basinal fluids, and potentially overlying seawater onto the crests of deeply buried salt diapirs. The mobilized fluids fuel methanogenic archaea locally enhancing the deep biosphere. The resulting elevated biogenic methane production, alongside the upward heat-driven fluid transport, represents a previously unrecognized mechanism of cold seep formation and regulation.

High Microeukaryotic Diversity in the Cold-Seep Sediment

Microeukaryotic diversity, community structure, and their regulating mechanisms remain largely unclear in chemosynthetic ecosystems. Here, using high-throughput sequencing data of 18S rRNA genes, we explored microeukaryotic communities from the Haima cold seep in the northern South China Sea. We compared three distinct habitats: active, less active, and non-seep regions, with vertical layers (0-25 cm) from sediment cores. The results showed that seep regions harbored more abundant and diverse parasitic microeukaryotes (e.g., Apicomplexa and Syndiniales) as indicator species, compared to nearby non-seep region. Microeukaryotic community heterogeneity was larger between habitats than within habitat, and greatly increased when considering molecular phylogeny, suggesting the local diversification in cold-seep sediments. Microeukaryotic α-diversity at cold seeps was positively increased by metazoan richness and dispersal rate of microeukaryotes, while its β-diversity was promoted by heterogeneous selection mainly from metazoan communities (as potential hosts). Their combined effects led to the significant higher γ-diversity (i.e., total diversity in a region) at cold seeps than non-seep regions, suggesting cold-seep sediment as a hotspot for microeukaryotic diversity. Our study highlights the importance of microeukaryotic parasitism in cold-seep sediment and has implications for the roles of cold seep in maintaining and promoting marine biodiversity.

Abiotic and biotic constituents of oil sands process-affected waters

The oil sands in Northern Alberta are the largest oil sands in the world, providing an important economic resource for the Canadian energy industry. The extraction of petroleum in the oil sands begins with the addition of hot water to the bituminous sediment, generating oil sands process-affected water (OSPW), which is acutely toxic to organisms. Trillions of litres of OSPW are stored on oil sands mining leased sites in man-made reservoirs called tailings ponds. As the volume of OSPW increases, concerns arise regarding the reclamation and eventual release of this water back into the environment. OSPW is composed of a complex and heterogeneous mix of components that vary based on factors such as company extraction techniques, age of the water, location, and bitumen ore quality. Therefore, the effective remediation of OSPW requires the consideration of abiotic and biotic constituents within it to understand short and long term effects of treatments used. This review summarizes selected chemicals and organisms in these waters and their interactions to provide a holistic perspective on the physiochemical and microbial dynamics underpinning OSPW .

Sediment Microbiota as a Proxy of Environmental Health: Discovering Inter- and Intrakingdom Dynamics along the Eastern Mediterranean Continental Shelf

Sedimentary marine habitats are the largest ecosystem on our planet in terms of area. Marine sediment microbiota govern most of the benthic biological processes and therefore are responsible for much of the global biogeochemical activity. Sediment microbiota respond, even rapidly, to natural change in environmental conditions as well as disturbances of anthropogenic sources. The latter greatly impact the continental shelf. Characterization and monitoring of the sediment microbiota may serve as an important tool for assessing environmental health and indicate changes in the marine ecosystem. This study examined the suitability of marine sediment microbiota as a bioindicator for environmental health in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Integration of information from Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota enabled robust assessment of environmental factors controlling sediment microbiota composition: seafloor-depth (here representing sediment grain size and total organic carbon), core depth, and season (11%, 4.2%, and 2.5% of the variance, respectively). Furthermore, inter- and intrakingdom cooccurrence patterns indicate that ecological filtration as well as stochastic processes may control sediment microbiota assembly. The results show that the sediment microbiota was robust over 3 years of sampling, in terms of both representation of region (outside the model sites) and robustness of microbial markers. Furthermore, anthropogenic disturbance was reflected by significant transformations in sediment microbiota. We therefore propose sediment microbiota analysis as a sensitive approach to detect disturbances, which is applicable for long-term monitoring of marine environmental health. IMPORTANCE Analysis of data, curated over 3 years of sediment sampling, improves our understanding of microbiota assembly in marine sediment. Furthermore, we demonstrate the importance of cross-kingdom integration of information in the study of microbial community ecology. Finally, the urgent need to propose an applicable approach for environmental health monitoring is addressed here by establishment of sediment microbiota as a robust and sensitive model.

Expanding the repertoire of electron acceptors for the anaerobic oxidation of methane in carbonates in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean

Authigenic carbonates represent a significant microbial sink for methane, yet little is known about the microbiome responsible for the methane removal. We identify carbonate microbiomes distributed over 21 locations hosted by seven different cold seeps in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans by carrying out a gene-based survey using 16S rRNA- and mcrA gene sequencing coupled with metagenomic analyses. Based on 16S rRNA gene amplicon analyses, these sites were dominated by bacteria affiliated to the Firmicutes, Alpha- and Gammaproteobacteria. ANME-1 and -2 archaeal clades were abundant in the carbonates yet their typical syntrophic partners, sulfate-reducing bacteria, were not significantly present. Based on mcrA amplicon analyses, the Candidatus Methanoperedens clades were also highly abundant. Our metagenome analysis indicated that methane oxidizers affiliated to the ANME-1 and -2, may be capable of performing complete methane- and potentially short-chain alkane oxidation independently using oxidized sulfur and nitrogen compounds as terminal electron acceptors. Gammaproteobacteria are hypothetically capable of utilizing oxidized nitrogen compounds and may be involved in syntrophy with methane-oxidizing archaea. Carbonate structures represent a window for a more diverse utilization of electron acceptors for anaerobic methane oxidation along the Atlantic and Pacific Margin.

Metaproteogenomic Profiling of Chemosynthetic Microbial Biofilms Reveals Metabolic Flexibility During Colonization of a Shallow-Water Gas Vent

Tor Caldara is a shallow-water gas vent located in the Mediterranean Sea, with active venting of CO₂ and H₂S. At Tor Caldara, filamentous microbial biofilms, mainly composed of Epsilon- and Gammaproteobacteria, grow on substrates exposed to the gas venting. In this study, we took a metaproteogenomic approach to identify the metabolic potential and in situ expression of central metabolic pathways at two stages of biofilm maturation. Our findings indicate that inorganic reduced sulfur species are the main electron donors and CO₂ the main carbon source for the filamentous biofilms, which conserve energy by oxygen and nitrate respiration, fix dinitrogen gas and detoxify heavy metals. Three metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs), representative of key members in the biofilm community, were also recovered. Metaproteomic data show that metabolically active chemoautotrophic sulfide-oxidizing members of the Epsilonproteobacteria dominated the young microbial biofilms, while Gammaproteobacteria become prevalent in the established community. The co-expression of different pathways for sulfide oxidation by these two classes of bacteria suggests exposure to different sulfide concentrations within the biofilms, as well as fine-tuned adaptations of the enzymatic complexes. Taken together, our findings demonstrate a shift in the taxonomic composition and associated metabolic activity of these biofilms in the course of the colonization process.

Characterization of marine microbial communities around an Arctic seabed hydrocarbon seep at Scott Inlet, Baffin Bay

Seabed hydrocarbon seeps present natural laboratories for investigating responses of marine ecosystems to petroleum input. A hydrocarbon seep near Scott Inlet, Baffin Bay, was visited for in situ observations and sampling in the summer of 2018. Video evidence of an active hydrocarbon seep was confirmed by methane and hydrocarbon analysis of the overlying water column, which is 260 m at this site. Elevated methane concentrations in bottom water above and down current from the seep decreased to background seawater levels in the mid-water column >150 m above the seafloor. Seafloor microbial mats morphologically resembling sulfide-oxidizing bacteria surrounded areas of bubble ebullition. Calcareous tube worms, brittle stars, shrimp, sponges, sea stars, sea anemones, sea urchins, small fish and soft corals were observed near the seep, with soft corals showing evidence for hydrocarbon incorporation. Sediment microbial communities included putative methane-oxidizing Methyloprofundus, sulfate-reducing Desulfobulbaceae and sulfide-oxidizing Sulfurovum. A metabolic gene diagnostic for aerobic methanotrophs (pmoA) was detected in the sediment and bottom water above the seep epicentre and up to 5 km away. Both 16S rRNA gene and pmoA amplicon sequencing revealed that pelagic microbial communities oriented along the geologic basement rise associated with methane seepage (running SW to NE) differed from communities in off-axis water up to 5 km away. Relative abundances of aerobic methanotrophs and putative hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria were elevated in the bottom water down current from the seep. Detection of bacterial clades typically associated with hydrocarbon and methane oxidation highlights the importance of Arctic marine microbial communities in mitigating hydrocarbon emissions from natural geologic sources.

Marine Gas Hydrate Geohazard Assessment on the European Continental Margins. The Impact of Critical Knowledge Gaps

This paper presents a geohazard assessment along the European continental margins and adjacent areas. This assessment is understood in the framework of the seafloor’s susceptibility to (i.e., likelihood of) being affected by the presence of hydrate deposits and the subsequent hazardous dissociation processes (liquefaction, explosion, collapse, crater-like depressions or submarine landslides). Geological and geophysical evidence and indicators of marine gas hydrates in the theoretical gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) were taken into account as the main factors controlling the susceptibility calculation. Svalbald, the Barents Sea, the mid-Norwegian margin-northwest British Islands, the Gulf of Cádiz, the eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea have the highest susceptibility. Seafloor areas outside the theoretical GHSZ were excluded from this geohazard assessment. The uncertainty analysis of the susceptibility inference shows extensive seafloor areas with no data and a very low density of data that are defined as critical knowledge gaps.

Artificial construction of the biocoenosis of deep-sea ecosystem via seeping methane

Deep-sea ecosystems, such as cold seeps and hydrothermal vents, have high biomass, even though they are located in the benthic zone, where no sunlight is present to provide energy for organism proliferation. Based on the coexistence of the reduced gases and chemoautotrophic microbes, it is inferred that the energy from the reduced gases supports the biocoenosis of deep-sea ecosystems. However, there is no direct evidence to support this deduction. Here, we developed and placed a biocoenosis generator, a device that continuously seeped methane, on the 1000-m deep-sea floor of the South China Sea to artificially construct a deep-sea ecosystem biocoenosis. The results showed that microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea, appeared in the biocoenosis generator first, followed by jellyfish and Gammaridea arthropods, indicating that a biocoenosis had been successfully constructed in the deep sea. Anaerobic methane-oxidizing archaea, which shared characteristics with the archaea of natural deep-sea cold seeps, acted as the first electron acceptors of the emitted methane; then, the energy in the electrons was transferred to downstream symbiotic archaea and bacteria and finally to animals. Nitrate-reducing bacteria served as partners to complete anaerobic oxidation of methane process. Further analysis revealed that viruses coexisted with these organisms during the origin of the deep-sea biocoenosis. Therefore, our study mimics a natural deep-sea ecosystem and provides the direct evidence to show that the chemical energy of reduced organic molecules, such as methane, supports the biocoenosis of deep-sea ecosystems.

Structure and diversity of native bacterial communities in soils contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of high-risk synthetic substances for human and environmental health. Currently, the study of sites contaminated by the spillage of equipment PCBs containing have been considered targeted areas for the study of bacterial communities with potential for PCBs degradation. There in isolation of bacterial strains is vital for use in biodegradable processes, such as bacterial bioaugmentation, which accelerates the development of phenomena such as natural attenuation of contaminated sites. The objective of this study was to assess biodiversity of bacteria contained in anthropogenic contaminated soils (H_S and H_P) with PCBs compared to a control sample without contaminant and the modified forest (F) and agricultural (A) soil in the laboratory with 100 mg L⁻¹ PCB. For the analysis of 16S rRNA genes amplified from DNA extracted from the soils evaluated, the latest generation of Illumina Miseq and Sanger sequencing for the cultivable strains were detected. The bacteria identified as the most abundant bacterial phyla for H_S and H_P soil was Proteobacteria (56.7%) and Firmicutes (22.9%), which decreased in F and A soils. The most abundant bacterial genera were Burkholderia, Bacillus, Acinetobacter, Comamonas and Cupriavidus. Several species identified in this study, such as Bacillus cereus, Burkholderia cepacia, Comamonas testosteroni and Acinetobacter pittii have been reported as PCBs degraders. Finally, by means of a principal component analysis (PCA), a correlation between the physical and chemical characteristics of the soils in relation to the relative abundances of the bacteria identified was obtained. The C/N ratio was directly related to the control soil (without contaminant), while SOM maintained a relationship with F and A soils and the bacterial abundances were directly related to Hs and Hp soils due to the presence of aroclor 1260. Bacteria with the ability to tolerate high concentrations of this pollutant are considered for future use in biostimulation and bioaugmentation processes in contaminated soils.

Vertical shifts of particle-attached and free-living prokaryotes in the water column above the cold seeps of the South China Sea

Marine particle-attached (PA) and free-living (FL) microbes play important roles in the biogeochemical cycling of organic matter along the water column. Deep-sea cold seeps are highly productive and chemosynthetic ecosystems, their continuous emission of CH₄, CO₂, and H₂S can reach up to 100 m in the above water, therefore would influence the distribution and potential metabolic functions of deep-sea prokaryotes. In this study, the vertical distribution profiles of both PA and FL microbes in the water column above two cold seeps of the South China Sea were investigated using Illumina sequencing and quantitative PCR (qPCR) based on 16S rRNA gene. Photosynthetic and heterotrophic prokaryotes were predominant in respective surface and deep layers below the photic zone. The typical cold seep chemosynthetic microbes, such as methanotrophs and sulfate-reducing bacteria were observed with low proportions in the two cold seeps as well. Distinct PA and FL microbial fractions were found in terms of abundance and diversity. FL fraction exposed to the bulk water was significantly affected by temperature and inorganic nutrients, whereas PA fraction relied more on the organic matter of the particles and less susceptible to the environmental variability. Our study highlights the importance of vertical geochemical gradients on the distribution and potential metabolic choice of marine microbes and extends our current knowledge of depth-associated microbial distribution patterns.

Hydrocarbon seepage in the deep seabed links subsurface and seafloor biospheres

The marine subsurface is one of the largest habitats on Earth composed exclusively of microorganisms and harboring on the order of 10²⁹ microbial cells. It is unclear if deep subsurface life impacts overlying seafloor diversity and biogeochemical cycling in the deep ocean. We analyzed the microbial communities of 172 seafloor surface sediment samples, including gas and oil seeps as well as sediments not subject to upward fluid flow. A strong correlation between typical subsurface clades and active geofluid seepage suggests that subsurface life is injected into the deep ocean floor at hydrocarbon seeps, a globally widespread hydrogeological phenomenon. This supply of subsurface-derived microbial populations, biomass, and metabolic potential thus increases biodiversity and impacts carbon cycling in the deep ocean.

Marine cold seeps transmit fluids between the subseafloor and seafloor biospheres through upward migration of hydrocarbons that originate in deep sediment layers. It remains unclear how geofluids influence the composition of the seabed microbiome and if they transport deep subsurface life up to the surface. Here we analyzed 172 marine surficial sediments from the deep-water Eastern Gulf of Mexico to assess whether hydrocarbon fluid migration is a mechanism for upward microbial dispersal. While 132 of these sediments contained migrated liquid hydrocarbons, evidence of continuous advective transport of thermogenic alkane gases was observed in 11 sediments. Gas seeps harbored distinct microbial communities featuring bacteria and archaea that are well-known inhabitants of deep biosphere sediments. Specifically, 25 distinct sequence variants within the uncultivated bacterial phyla Atribacteria and Aminicenantes and the archaeal order Thermoprofundales occurred in significantly greater relative sequence abundance along with well-known seep-colonizing members of the bacterial genus Sulfurovum, in the gas-positive sediments. Metabolic predictions guided by metagenome-assembled genomes suggested these organisms are anaerobic heterotrophs capable of nonrespiratory breakdown of organic matter, likely enabling them to inhabit energy-limited deep subseafloor ecosystems. These results point to petroleum geofluids as a vector for the advection-assisted upward dispersal of deep biosphere microbes from subsurface to surface environments, shaping the microbiome of cold seep sediments and providing a general mechanism for the maintenance of microbial diversity in the deep sea.

Drivers of Bacterial α- and β-Diversity Patterns and Functioning in Subsurface Hadal Sediments

Oceanic trenches at hadal (>6,000 m) depths are hot spots of organic matter deposition and mineralization and can host abundant and active bacterial assemblages. However, the factors able to shape their biodiversity and functioning remain largely unexplored, especially in subsurface sediments. Here, we investigated the patterns and drivers of benthic bacterial α- and β-diversity (i.e., OTU richness and turnover diversity) along the vertical profile down to 1.5 m sediment depth in the Izu-Bonin Trench (at ~10,000 m water depth). The protease and glucosidase enzymatic activity rates were also determined, as a proxy of organic matter degradation potential in the different sediment layers. Molecular fingerprinting based on automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (ARISA) indicated that the α-diversity of bacterial assemblages remained high throughout the vertical profile and that the turnover (β-) diversity among sediment horizons reached values up to 90% of dissimilarity. Multivariate distance-based linear modeling (DISTLM) pointed out that the diversity and functioning of the hadal bacterial assemblages were influenced by the variability of environmental conditions (including the availability of organic resources and electron donors/acceptors) and of viral production rates along the sediment vertical profile. Based on our results, we can argue that the heterogeneity of physical-chemical features of the hadal sediments of the Izu-Bonin Trench contribute to increase the niches availability for different bacterial taxa, while viruses contribute to maintain high levels of bacterial turnover diversity and to enhance organic matter cycling in these extremely remote and isolated ecosystems.

Endolithic Microbial Habitats Hosted in Carbonate Nodules Currently Forming within Sediment at a High Methane Flux Site in the Sea of Japan

Concretionary carbonates in deep-sea methane seep fields are formed as a result of microbial methane degradation, called anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM). Recently, active microorganisms, including anaerobic methanotrophic archaea, were discovered from methane seep-associated carbonate outcroppings on the seafloor. However sedimentary buried carbonate nodules are a hitherto unknown microbial habitat. In this study, we investigated the microbial community structures in two carbonate nodules collected from a high methane flux site in a gas hydrate field off the Oki islands in the Sea of Japan. The nodules were formed around sulfate-methane interfaces (SMI) corresponding to 0.7 and 2.2 m below the seafloor. Based on a geochemical analysis, light carbon isotopic values ranging from −54.91‰ to −37.32‰ were found from the nodules collected at the shallow SMI depth, which were attributed to the high contributions of AOM-induced carbonate precipitation. Signatures of methanotrophic archaeal populations within the sedimentary buried nodule were detected based on microbial community composition analyses and quantitative real-time PCR targeted 16S rRNA, and functional genes for AOM. These results suggest that the buried carbonate nodule currently develops AOM-related microbial communities, and grows depending on the continued AOM under high methane flux conditions.

Horizontal acquisition of a patchwork Calvin cycle by symbiotic and free-living Campylobacterota (formerly Epsilonproteobacteria)

Most autotrophs use the Calvin–Benson–Bassham (CBB) cycle for carbon fixation. In contrast, all currently described autotrophs from the Campylobacterota (previously Epsilonproteobacteria) use the reductive tricarboxylic acid cycle (rTCA) instead. We discovered campylobacterotal epibionts (“Candidatus Thiobarba”) of deep-sea mussels that have acquired a complete CBB cycle and may have lost most key genes of the rTCA cycle. Intriguingly, the phylogenies of campylobacterotal CBB cycle genes suggest they were acquired in multiple transfers from Gammaproteobacteria closely related to sulfur-oxidizing endosymbionts associated with the mussels, as well as from Betaproteobacteria. We hypothesize that “Ca. Thiobarba” switched from the rTCA cycle to a fully functional CBB cycle during its evolution, by acquiring genes from multiple sources, including co-occurring symbionts. We also found key CBB cycle genes in free-living Campylobacterota, suggesting that the CBB cycle may be more widespread in this phylum than previously known. Metatranscriptomics and metaproteomics confirmed high expression of CBB cycle genes in mussel-associated “Ca. Thiobarba”. Direct stable isotope fingerprinting showed that “Ca. Thiobarba” has typical CBB signatures, suggesting that it uses this cycle for carbon fixation. Our discovery calls into question current assumptions about the distribution of carbon fixation pathways in microbial lineages, and the interpretation of stable isotope measurements in the environment.

Methane-fuelled biofilms predominantly composed of methanotrophic ANME-1 in Arctic gas hydrate-related sediments

Sedimentary biofilms comprising microbial communities mediating the anaerobic oxidation of methane are rare. Here, we describe two biofilm communities discovered in sediment cores recovered from Arctic cold seep sites (gas hydrate pingos) in the north-western Barents Sea, characterized by steady methane fluxes. We found macroscopically visible biofilms in pockets in the sediment matrix at the depth of the sulphate-methane-transition zone. 16S rRNA gene surveys revealed that the microbial community in one of the two biofilms comprised exclusively of putative anaerobic methanotrophic archaea of which ANME-1 was the sole archaeal taxon. The bacterial community consisted of relatives of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) belonging to uncultured Desulfobacteraceae clustering into SEEP-SRB1 (i.e. the typical SRB associated to ANME-1), and members of the atribacterial JS1 clade. Confocal laser scanning microscopy demonstrates that this biofilm is composed of multicellular strands and patches of ANME-1 that are loosely associated with SRB cells, but not tightly connected in aggregates. Our discovery of methanotrophic biofilms in sediment pockets closely associated with methane seeps constitutes a hitherto overlooked and potentially widespread sink for methane and sulphate in marine sediments.

Microbial Diversity and Connectivity in Deep-Sea Sediments of the South Atlantic Polar Front

Ultraslow spreading ridges account for one-third of the global mid-ocean ridges. Their impact on the diversity and connectivity of benthic deep-sea microbial assemblages is poorly understood, especially for hydrothermally inactive, magma-starved ridges. We investigated bacterial and archaeal diversity in sediments collected from an amagmatic segment (10°–17°E) of the Southwest Indian Ridge (SWIR) and in the adjacent northern and southern abyssal zones of similar water depths within one biogeochemical province of the Indian Ocean. Microbial diversity was determined by 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequencing. Our results show significant differences in microbial communities between stations outside and inside the SWIR, which were mostly explained by environmental selection. Community similarity correlated significantly with differences in chlorophyll a content and with the presence of upward porewater fluxes carrying reduced compounds (e.g., ammonia and sulfide), suggesting that trophic resource availability is a main driver for changes in microbial community composition. At the stations in the SWIR axial valley (3,655–4,448 m water depth), microbial communities were enriched in bacterial and archaeal taxa common in organic matter-rich subsurface sediments (e.g., SEEP-SRB1, Dehalococcoida, Atribacteria, and Woesearchaeota) and chemosynthetic environments (mainly Helicobacteraceae). The abyssal stations outside the SWIR communities (3,760–4,869 m water depth) were dominated by OM1 clade, JTB255, Planctomycetaceae, and Rhodospirillaceae. We conclude that ultraslow spreading ridges create a unique environmental setting in sedimented segments without distinct hydrothermal activity, and play an important role in shaping microbial communities and promoting diversity, but also in connectivity among deep-sea habitats.

Sketching the Human Microbiome Biogeography with DAR (Diversity-Area Relationship) Profiles

SAR (species area relationship) is a classic ecological theory that has been extensively investigated and applied in the studies of global biogeography and biodiversity conservation in macro-ecology. It has also found important applications in microbial ecology in recent years thanks to the breakthroughs in metagenomic sequencing technology. Nevertheless, SAR has a serious limitation for practical applications-ignoring the species abundance and treating all species as equally abundant. This study aims to explore the biogeography discoveries of human microbiome over 18 sites of 5 major microbiome habitats, establish the baseline DAR (diversity-area scaling relationship) parameters, and perform comparisons with the classic SAR. The extension from SAR to DAR by adopting the Hill numbers as diversity measures not only overcomes the previously mentioned flaw of SAR but also allows for obtaining a series of important findings on the human microbiome biodiversity and biogeography. Specifically, two types of DAR models were built, the traditional power law (PL) and power law with exponential cutoff (PLEC), using comprehensive datasets from the HMP (human microbiome project). Furthermore, the biogeography "maps" for 18 human microbiome sites using their DAR profiles for assessing and predicting the diversity scaling across individuals, PDO profiles (pair-wise diversity overlap) for measuring diversity overlap (similarity), and MAD profile (for predicting the maximal accrual diversity in a population) were sketched out. The baseline biogeography maps for the healthy human microbiome diversity can offer guidelines for conserving human microbiome diversity and investigating the health implications of the human microbiome diversity and heterogeneity.

Anaerobic oxidation of ethane by archaea from a marine hydrocarbon seep

Ethane is the second most abundant component of natural gas in addition to methane, and-similar to methane-is chemically unreactive. The biological consumption of ethane under anoxic conditions was suggested by geochemical profiles at marine hydrocarbon seeps^1-3, and through ethane-dependent sulfate reduction in slurries^4-7. Nevertheless, the microorganisms and reactions that catalyse this process have to date remained unknown⁸. Here we describe ethane-oxidizing archaea that were obtained by specific enrichment over ten years, and analyse these archaea using phylogeny-based fluorescence analyses, proteogenomics and metabolite studies. The co-culture, which oxidized ethane completely while reducing sulfate to sulfide, was dominated by an archaeon that we name 'Candidatus Argoarchaeum ethanivorans'; other members were sulfate-reducing Deltaproteobacteria. The genome of Ca. Argoarchaeum contains all of the genes that are necessary for a functional methyl-coenzyme M reductase, and all subunits were detected in protein extracts. Accordingly, ethyl-coenzyme M (ethyl-CoM) was identified as an intermediate by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. This indicated that Ca. Argoarchaeum initiates ethane oxidation by ethyl-CoM formation, analogous to the recently described butane activation by 'Candidatus Syntrophoarchaeum'⁹. Proteogenomics further suggests that oxidation of intermediary acetyl-CoA to CO₂ occurs through the oxidative Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. The identification of an archaeon that uses ethane (C₂H₆) fills a gap in our knowledge of microorganisms that specifically oxidize members of the homologous alkane series (C_nH_2n+2) without oxygen. Detection of phylogenetic and functional gene markers related to those of Ca. Argoarchaeum at deep-sea gas seeps^10-12 suggests that archaea that are able to oxidize ethane through ethyl-CoM are widespread members of the local communities fostered by venting gaseous alkanes around these seeps.

Global Microbiome Diversity Scaling in Hot Springs With DAR (Diversity-Area Relationship) Profiles

The spatial distribution of biodiversity (i.e., the biogeography) of the hot-spring microbiome is critical for understanding the microbial ecosystems in hot springs. We investigated the microbiome diversity scaling (changes) over space by analyzing the diversity-area relationship (DAR), which is an extension to classic SAR (species-area relationship) law in biogeography. We built DAR models for archaea and bacteria with 16S-rRNA sequencing datasets from 165 hot springs globally. From the DAR models, we sketch out the biogeographic maps of hot-spring microbiomes by constructing: (i) DAR profile-measuring the archaea or bacteria diversity scaling over space (areas); (ii) PDO (pair-wise diversity overlap or similarity) profile-estimating the PDO between two hot springs; (iii) MAD (maximal accrual diversity) profile-predicting the global MAD; (iv) LRD/LGD (ratio of local diversity to regional or global diversity) profile. We further investigated the differences between archaea and bacteria in their biogeographic maps. For example, the comparison of DAR-profile maps revealed that the archaea diversity is more heterogeneous (i.e., more diverse) or scaling faster than the bacterial diversity does in terms of species numbers (species richness), but is less heterogeneous (i.e., less diverse) or scaling slower than bacteria when the diversity (Hill numbers) were weighted in favor of more abundant dominant species. When the diversity is weighted equally in terms of species abundances, archaea, and bacteria are equally heterogeneous over space or scaling at the same rate. Finally, unified DAR models (maps) were built with the combined datasets of archaea and bacteria.

CO2 leakage can cause loss of benthic biodiversity in submarine sands

One of the options to mitigate atmospheric CO₂ increase is CO₂ Capture and Storage in sub-seabed geological formations. Since predicting long-term storage security is difficult, different CO₂ leakage scenarios and impacts on marine ecosystems require evaluation. Submarine CO₂ vents may serve as natural analogues and allow studying the effects of CO₂ leakage in a holistic approach. At the study site east of Basiluzzo Islet off Panarea Island (Italy), gas emissions (90-99% CO₂) occur at moderate flows (80-120 L m^-2 h^-1). We investigated the effects of acidified porewater conditions (pH_T range: 5.5-7.7) on the diversity of benthic bacteria and invertebrates by sampling natural sediments in three subsequent years and by performing a transplantation experiment with a duration of one year, respectively. Both multiple years and one year of exposure to acidified porewater conditions reduced the number of benthic bacterial operational taxonomic units and invertebrate species diversity by 30-80%. Reduced biodiversity at the vent sites increased the temporal variability in bacterial and nematode community biomass, abundance and composition. While the release from CO₂ exposure resulted in a full recovery of nematode species diversity within one year, bacterial diversity remained affected. Overall our findings showed that seawater acidification, induced by seafloor CO₂ emissions, was responsible for loss of diversity across different size-classes of benthic organisms, which reduced community stability with potential relapses on ecosystem resilience.

Ecological Succession of Sulfur-Oxidizing Epsilon- and Gammaproteobacteria During Colonization of a Shallow-Water Gas Vent

In this study, we integrated geochemical measurements, microbial diversity surveys and physiological characterization of laboratory strains to investigate substrate-attached filamentous microbial biofilms at Tor Caldara, a shallow-water gas vent in the Tyrrhenian Sea. At this site, the venting gases are mainly composed of CO₂ and H₂S and the temperature at the emissions is the same as that of the surrounding water. To investigate the composition of the total and active fraction of the Tor Caldara biofilm communities, we collected established and newly formed filaments and we sequenced the 16S rRNA genes (DNA) and the 16S rRNA transcripts (cDNA). Chemoautotrophic sulfur-oxidizing members of the Gammaproteobacteria (predominantly Thiotrichales) dominate the active fraction of the established microbial filaments, while Epsilonproteobacteria (predominantly Sulfurovum spp.) are more prevalent in the young filaments. This indicates a succession of the two communities, possibly in response to age, sulfide and oxygen concentrations. Growth experiments with representative laboratory strains in sulfide gradient medium revealed that Sulfurovum riftiae (Epsilonproteobacteria) grew closer to the sulfide source than Thiomicrospira sp. (Gammaproteobacteria, Thiotrichales). Overall, our findings show that sulfur-oxidizing Epsilonproteobacteria are the dominant pioneer colonizers of the Tor Caldara biofilm communities and that Gammaproteobacteria become prevalent once the community is established. This succession pattern appears to be driven - among other factors - by the adaptation of Epsilon- and Gammaproteobacteria to different sulfide concentrations.

Vertical and Seasonal Patterns Control Bacterioplankton Communities at Two Horizontally Coherent Coastal Upwelling Sites off Galicia (NW Spain)

Analysis of seasonal patterns of marine bacterial community structure along horizontal and vertical spatial scales can help to predict long-term responses to climate change. Several recent studies have shown predictable seasonal reoccurrence of bacterial assemblages. However, only a few have assessed temporal variability over both horizontal and vertical spatial scales. Here, we simultaneously studied the bacterial community structure at two different locations and depths in shelf waters of a coastal upwelling system during an annual cycle. The most noticeable biogeographic patterns observed were seasonality, horizontal homogeneity, and spatial synchrony in bacterial diversity and community structure related with regional upwelling-downwelling dynamics. Water column mixing eventually disrupted bacterial community structure vertical heterogeneity. Our results are consistent with previous temporal studies of marine bacterioplankton in other temperate regions and also suggest a marked influence of regional factors on the bacterial communities inhabiting this coastal upwelling system. Bacterial-mediated carbon fluxes in this productive region appear to be mainly controlled by community structure dynamics in surface waters, and local environmental factors at the base of the euphotic zone.

Assessing and Interpreting the Within-Body Biogeography of Human Microbiome Diversity

A human body hosts a relatively independent microbiome including five major regional biomes (i.e., airway, oral, gut, skin, and urogenital). Each of them may possess different regional characteristics with important implications to our health and diseases (i.e., so-termed microbiome associated diseases). Nevertheless, these regional microbiomes are connected with each other through diffusions and migrations. Here, we investigate the within-body (intra-individual) distribution feature of microbiome diversity via diversity area relationship (DAR) modeling, which, to the best of our knowledge, has not been systematically studied previously. We utilized the Hill numbers for measuring alpha and beta-diversities and built 1,200 within-body DAR models with to date the most comprehensive human microbiome datasets of 18 sites from the human microbiome project (HMP) cohort. We established the intra-DAR profile (z-q pattern: the diversity scaling parameter z of the power law (PL) at diversity order q = 0–3), intra-PDO (pair-wise diversity overlap) profile (g-q), and intra-MAD (maximal accrual diversity) profile (D_max-q) for the within-body biogeography of the human microbiome. These profiles constitute the “maps” of the within-body biogeography, and offer important insights on the within-body distribution of the human microbiome. Furthermore, we investigated the heterogeneity among individuals in their biogeography parameters and found that there is not an “average Joe” that can represent majority of individuals in a cohort or population. For example, we found that most individuals in the HMP cohort have relatively lower maximal accrual diversity (MAD) or in the “long tail” of the so-termed power law distribution. In the meantime, there are a small number of individuals in the cohort who possess disproportionally higher MAD values. These findings may have important implications for personalized medicine of the human microbiome associated diseases in practice, besides their theoretical significance in microbiome research such as establishing the baseline for the conservation of human microbiome.

Microbial Community Structure and Functional Potential Along a Hypersaline Gradient

Salinity is one of the strongest environmental drivers of microbial evolution and community composition. Here we aimed to determine the impact of salt concentrations (2.5, 7.5, and 33.2%) on the microbial community structure of reclaimed saltern ponds near San Francisco, California, and to discover prospective enzymes with potential biotechnological applications. Community compositions were determined by 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing revealing both higher richness and evenness in the pond sediments compared to the water columns. Co-occurrence network analysis additionally uncovered the presence of microbial seed bank communities, potentially primed to respond to rapid changes in salinity. In addition, functional annotation of shotgun metagenomic DNA showed different capabilities if the microbial communities at different salinities for methanogenesis, amino acid metabolism, and carbohydrate-active enzymes. There was an overall shift with increasing salinity in the functional potential for starch degradation, and a decrease in degradation of cellulose and other oligosaccharides. Further, many carbohydrate-active enzymes identified have acidic isoelectric points that have potential biotechnological applications, including deconstruction of biofuel feedstocks under high ionic conditions. Metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) of individual halotolerant and halophilic microbes were binned revealing a variety of carbohydrate-degrading potential of individual pond inhabitants.

Diversity time-period and diversity-time-area relationships exemplified by the human microbiome

We extend the ecological laws of species-time relationship (STR) and species-time-area relationship (STAR) to general diversity time-period relationship (DTR) and diversity-time-area relationship (DTAR), and test the extensions with the human vaginal microbiome datasets by building 1460 DTR/DTAR models. Our extensions were inspired by the observation that Hill numbers, well regarded as the most appropriate measure of alpha-diversity and also particularly suitable for multiplicative beta-diversity partitioning, are actually in the units of effective species, and therefore, should be able to substitute for species in the STR and STAR. We found that the traditional power law (PL) model is only applicable for DTR at diversity order zero (i.e., species richness); at higher diversity orders (q = 1–4), the power law with exponent cutoff (PLEC) and power law with inverse exponent cutoff (PLIEC) are more appropriate. In particular, PLEC has an advantage over PLIEC in predicting maximal accumulation diversity (MAD) over time. In fact, with the DTR extensions, we can construct DTR and MAD profiles. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive investigation of the DTR/DTAR in human microbiome. Methodologically, our DTR/DTAR profiles can characterize general diversity scaling beyond species richness, covering both alpha- and beta-diversity regimes across different diversity orders.

Energy Gradients Structure Microbial Communities Across Sediment Horizons in Deep Marine Sediments of the South China Sea

The deep marine subsurface is a heterogeneous environment in which the assembly of microbial communities is thought to be controlled by a combination of organic matter deposition, electron acceptor availability, and sedimentology. However, the relative importance of these factors in structuring microbial communities in marine sediments remains unclear. The South China Sea (SCS) experiences significant variability in sedimentation across the basin and features discrete changes in sedimentology as a result of episodic deposition of turbidites and volcanic ashes within lithogenic clays and siliceous or calcareous ooze deposits throughout the basin's history. Deep subsurface microbial communities were recently sampled by the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) at three locations in the SCS with sedimentation rates of 5, 12, and 20 cm per thousand years. Here, we used Illumina sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene to characterize deep subsurface microbial communities from distinct sediment types at these sites. Communities across all sites were dominated by several poorly characterized taxa implicated in organic matter degradation, including Atribacteria, Dehalococcoidia, and Aerophobetes. Sulfate-reducing bacteria comprised only 4% of the community across sulfate-bearing sediments from multiple cores and did not change in abundance in sediments from the methanogenic zone at the site with the lowest sedimentation rate. Microbial communities were significantly structured by sediment age and the availability of sulfate as an electron acceptor in pore waters. However, microbial communities demonstrated no partitioning based on the sediment type they inhabited. These results indicate that microbial communities in the SCS are structured by the availability of electron donors and acceptors rather than sedimentological characteristics.

Thermophilic endospores associated with migrated thermogenic hydrocarbons in deep Gulf of Mexico marine sediments

Dormant endospores of thermophilic bacteria (thermospores) can be detected in cold marine sediments following high-temperature incubation. Thermospores in the cold seabed may be explained by a dispersal history originating in deep biosphere oil reservoir habitats where upward migration of petroleum fluids at hydrocarbon seeps transports viable cells into the overlying ocean. We assessed this deep-to-shallow dispersal hypothesis through geochemical and microbiological analyses of 111 marine sediments from the deep water Eastern Gulf of Mexico. GC-MS and fluorescence confirmed the unambiguous presence of thermogenic hydrocarbons in 71 of these locations, indicating seepage from deeply sourced petroleum in the subsurface. Heating each sediment to 50 °C followed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed several thermospores with a cosmopolitan distribution throughout the study area, as well as thermospores that were more geographically restricted. Among the thermospores having a more limited distribution, 12 OTUs from eight different lineages were repeatedly detected in sediments containing thermogenic hydrocarbons. A subset of these were significantly correlated with hydrocarbons (p < 0.05) and most closely related to Clostridiales previously detected in oil reservoirs from around the world. This provides evidence of bacteria in the ocean being dispersed out of oil reservoirs, and suggests that specific thermospores may be used as model organisms for studying warm-to-cold transmigration in the deep sea.

The vertical distribution of prokaryotes in the surface sediment of Jiaolong cold seep at the northern South China Sea

In deep-sea cold seeps, microbial communities are shaped by geochemical components in seepage solutions. In the present study, we report the composition of microbial communities and potential metabolic activities in the surface sediment of Jiaolong cold seep at the northern South China Sea. Pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA gene amplicons revealed that a majority of the microbial inhabitants of the surface layers (0-6 cm) were sulfur oxidizer bacteria Sulfurimonas and archaeal methane consumer ANME-1, while sulfate reducer bacteria SEEP-SRB1, ANME-1 and ANME-2 dominated the bottom layers (8-14 cm). The potential ecological roles of the microorganisms were further supported by the presence of functional genes for methane oxidation, sulfur oxidation, sulfur reduction and nitrate reduction in the metagenomes. Metagenomic analysis revealed a significant correlation between coverage of 16S rRNA gene of sulfur oxidizer bacteria, functional genes involved in sulfur oxidation and nitrate reduction in different layers, indicating that sulfur oxidizing may be coupled to nitrate reducing at the surface layers of Jiaolong seeping site. This is probably related to the sulfur oxidizers of Sulfurimonas and Sulfurovum, which may be the capacity of nitrate reduction or associated with unidentified syntrophic nitrate-reducing microbes in the surface of the cold seep.

Bacterial Diversity and Biogeochemistry of Two Marine Shallow-Water Hydrothermal Systems off Dominica (Lesser Antilles)

Shallow-water hydrothermal systems represent extreme environments with unique biogeochemistry and high biological productivity, at which autotrophic microorganisms use both light and chemical energy for the production of biomass. Microbial communities of these ecosystems are metabolically diverse and possess the capacity to transform a large range of chemical compounds. Yet, little is known about their diversity or factors shaping their structure or how they compare to coastal sediments not impacted by hydrothermalism. To this end, we have used automated ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (ARISA) and high-throughput Illumina sequencing combined with porewater geochemical analysis to investigate microbial communities along geochemical gradients in two shallow-water hydrothermal systems off the island of Dominica (Lesser Antilles). At both sites, venting of hydrothermal fluids substantially altered the porewater geochemistry by enriching it with silica, iron and dissolved inorganic carbon, resulting in island-like habitats with distinct biogeochemistry. The magnitude of fluid flow and difference in sediment grain size, which impedes mixing of the fluids with seawater, were correlated with the observed differences in the porewater geochemistry between the two sites. Concomitantly, individual sites harbored microbial communities with a significantly different community structure. These differences could be statistically linked to variations in the porewater geochemistry and the hydrothermal fluids. The two shallow-water hydrothermal systems of Dominica harbored bacterial communities with high taxonomical and metabolic diversity, predominated by heterotrophic microorganisms associated with the Gammaproteobacterial genera Pseudomonas and Pseudoalteromonas, indicating the importance of heterotrophic processes. Overall, this study shows that shallow-water hydrothermal systems contribute substantially to the biogeochemical heterogeneity and bacterial diversity of coastal sediments.

Postglacial response of Arctic Ocean gas hydrates to climatic amelioration

Seafloor methane release due to the thermal dissociation of gas hydrates is pervasive across the continental margins of the Arctic Ocean. Furthermore, there is increasing awareness that shallow hydrate-related methane seeps have appeared due to enhanced warming of Arctic Ocean bottom water during the last century. Although it has been argued that a gas hydrate gun could trigger abrupt climate change, the processes and rates of subsurface/atmospheric natural gas exchange remain uncertain. Here we investigate the dynamics between gas hydrate stability and environmental changes from the height of the last glaciation through to the present day. Using geophysical observations from offshore Svalbard to constrain a coupled ice sheet/gas hydrate model, we identify distinct phases of subglacial methane sequestration and subsequent release on ice sheet retreat that led to the formation of a suite of seafloor domes. Reconstructing the evolution of this dome field, we find that incursions of warm Atlantic bottom water forced rapid gas hydrate dissociation and enhanced methane emissions during the penultimate Heinrich event, the Bølling and Allerød interstadials, and the Holocene optimum. Our results highlight the complex interplay between the cryosphere, geosphere, and atmosphere over the last 30,000 y that led to extensive changes in subseafloor carbon storage that forced distinct episodes of methane release due to natural climate variability well before recent anthropogenic warming.

Temporal and Spatial Variations of Bacterial and Faunal Communities Associated with Deep-Sea Wood Falls

Sinking of large organic food falls i.e. kelp, wood and whale carcasses to the oligotrophic deep-sea floor promotes the establishment of locally highly productive and diverse ecosystems, often with specifically adapted benthic communities. However, the fragmented spatial distribution and small area poses challenges for the dispersal of their microbial and faunal communities. Our study focused on the temporal dynamics and spatial distributions of sunken wood bacterial communities, which were deployed in the vicinity of different cold seeps in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Norwegian deep-seas. By combining fingerprinting of bacterial communities by ARISA and 454 sequencing with in situ and ex situ biogeochemical measurements, we show that sunken wood logs have a locally confined long-term impact (> 3y) on the sediment geochemistry and community structure. We confirm previous hypotheses of different successional stages in wood degradation including a sulphophilic one, attracting chemosynthetic fauna from nearby seep systems. Wood experiments deployed at similar water depths (1100-1700 m), but in hydrographically different oceanic regions harbored different wood-boring bivalves, opportunistic faunal communities, and chemosynthetic species. Similarly, bacterial communities on sunken wood logs were more similar within one geographic region than between different seas. Diverse sulphate-reducing bacteria of the Deltaproteobacteria, the sulphide-oxidizing bacteria Sulfurovum as well as members of the Acidimicrobiia and Bacteroidia dominated the wood falls in the Eastern Mediterranean, while Alphaproteobacteria and Flavobacteriia colonized the Norwegian Sea wood logs. Fauna and bacterial wood-associated communities changed between 1 to 3 years of immersion, with sulphate-reducers and sulphide-oxidizers increasing in proportion, and putative cellulose degraders decreasing with time. Only 6% of all bacterial genera, comprising the core community, were found at any time on the Eastern Mediterranean sunken wooden logs. This study suggests that biogeography and succession play an important role for the composition of bacteria and fauna of wood-associated communities, and that wood can act as stepping-stones for seep biota.

High-Throughput Sequencing of Viable Microbial Communities in Raw Pork Subjected to a Fast Cooling Process

This study aimed to investigate the effect of the fast cooling process on the microbiological community in chilled fresh pork during storage. We established a culture-independent method to study viable microbes in raw pork. Tray-packaged fresh pork and chilled fresh pork were completely spoiled after 18 and 49 d in aseptic bags at 4 °C, respectively. 16S/18S ribosomal RNAs were reverse transcribed to cDNA to characterize the activity of viable bacteria/fungi in the 2 types of pork. Both cDNA and total DNA were analyzed by high-throughput sequencing, which revealed that viable Bacteroides sp. were the most active genus in rotten pork, although viable Myroides sp. and Pseudomonas sp. were also active. Moreover, viable fungi were only detected in chilled fresh pork. The sequencing results revealed that the fast cooling process could suppress the growth of microbes present initially in the raw meat to extend its shelf life. Our results also suggested that fungi associated with pork spoilage could not grow well in aseptic tray-packaged conditions.

Water mass mixing shapes bacterial biogeography in a highly hydrodynamic region of the Southern Ocean

Even though compelling evidences indicate that marine microbes show biogeographic patterns, very little is known on the mechanisms driving those patterns in aquatic ecosystems. In the present study, bacterial community structure was examined in epipelagic waters of a highly hydrodynamic area of the Southern Ocean to gain insight into the role that biogeochemical factors and water mass mixing (a proxy of dispersal) have on microbial biogeography. Four water masses that converge and mix around the South Shetland Islands (northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula) were investigated. Bacterioplankton communities were water-mass specific, and were best explained by dispersal rather than by biogeochemical factors, which is attributed to the relatively reduced environmental gradients found in these cold and nutrient rich waters. These results support the notion that currents and water mixing may have a considerable effect in connecting and transforming different water bodies, and consequently, in shaping communities of microorganisms. Considering the multidimensional and dynamic nature of the ocean, analysis of water mass mixing is a more suitable approach to investigate the role of dispersal on the biogeography of planktonic microorganisms rather than geographical distance.

Microbiome Dynamics of a Polychlorobiphenyl (PCB) Historically Contaminated Marine Sediment under Conditions Promoting Reductive Dechlorination

The toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) can be efficiently reduced in contaminated marine sediments through the reductive dechlorination (RD) process lead by anaerobic organohalide bacteria. Although the process has been extensively investigated on PCB-spiked sediments, the knowledge on the identity and metabolic potential of PCB-dechlorinating microorganisms in real contaminated matrix is still limited. Aim of this study was to explore the composition and the dynamics of the microbial communities of the marine sediment collected from one of the largest Sites of National Interest (SIN) in Italy (Mar Piccolo, Taranto) under conditions promoting the PCBs RD. A long-term microcosm study revealed that autochthonous bacteria were able to sustain the PCB dechlorination at a high extent and the successive addition of an external fermentable organic substrate (lactate) caused the further depletion of the high-chlorinated PCBs (up to 70%). Next Generation Sequencing was used to describe the core microbiome of the marine sediment and to follow the changes caused by the treatments. OTUs affiliated to sulfur-oxidizing ε-proteobacteria, Sulfurovum, and Sulfurimonas, were predominant in the original sediment and increased up to 60% of total OTUs after lactate addition. Other OTUs detected in the sediment were affiliated to sulfate reducing (δ-proteobacteria) and to organohalide respiring bacteria within Chloroflexi phylum mainly belonging to Dehalococcoidia class. Among others, Dehalococcoides mccartyi was enriched during the treatments even though the screening of the specific reductive dehalogenase genes revealed the occurrence of undescribed strains, which deserve further investigations. Overall, this study highlighted the potential of members of Dehalococcoidia class in reducing the contamination level of the marine sediment from Mar Piccolo with relevant implications on the selection of sustainable bioremediation strategies to clean-up the site.

Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Pacific Oyster Hemolymph Microbiota across Multiple Scales

Unveiling the factors and processes that shape the dynamics of host associated microbial communities (microbiota) under natural conditions is an important part of understanding and predicting an organism's response to a changing environment. The microbiota is shaped by host (i.e., genetic) factors as well as by the biotic and abiotic environment. Studying natural variation of microbial community composition in multiple host genetic backgrounds across spatial as well as temporal scales represents a means to untangle this complex interplay. Here, we combined a spatially-stratified with a longitudinal sampling scheme within differentiated host genetic backgrounds by reciprocally transplanting Pacific oysters between two sites in the Wadden Sea (Sylt and Texel). To further differentiate contingent site from host genetic effects, we repeatedly sampled the same individuals over a summer season to examine structure, diversity and dynamics of individual hemolymph microbiota following experimental removal of resident microbiota by antibiotic treatment. While a large proportion of microbiome variation could be attributed to immediate environmental conditions, we observed persistent effects of antibiotic treatment and translocation suggesting that hemolymph microbial community dynamics is subject to within-microbiome interactions and host population specific factors. In addition, the analysis of spatial variation revealed that the within-site microenvironmental heterogeneity resulted in high small-scale variability, as opposed to large-scale (between-site) stability. Similarly, considerable within-individual temporal variability was in contrast with the overall temporal stability at the site level. Overall, our longitudinal, spatially-stratified sampling design revealed that variation in hemolymph microbiota is strongly influenced by site and immediate environmental conditions, whereas internal microbiome dynamics and oyster-related factors add to their long-term stability. The combination of small and large scale resolution of spatial and temporal observations therefore represents a crucial but underused tool to study host-associated microbiome dynamics.

Diversity and Biogeography of Bathyal and Abyssal Seafloor Bacteria

The deep ocean floor covers more than 60% of the Earth's surface, and hosts diverse bacterial communities with important functions in carbon and nutrient cycles. The identification of key bacterial members remains a challenge and their patterns of distribution in seafloor sediment yet remain poorly described. Previous studies were either regionally restricted or included few deep-sea sediments, and did not specifically test biogeographic patterns across the vast oligotrophic bathyal and abyssal seafloor. Here we define the composition of this deep seafloor microbiome by describing those bacterial operational taxonomic units (OTU) that are specifically associated with deep-sea surface sediments at water depths ranging from 1000-5300 m. We show that the microbiome of the surface seafloor is distinct from the subsurface seafloor. The cosmopolitan bacterial OTU were affiliated with the clades JTB255 (class Gammaproteobacteria, order Xanthomonadales) and OM1 (Actinobacteria, order Acidimicrobiales), comprising 21% and 7% of their respective clades, and about 1% of all sequences in the study. Overall, few sequence-abundant bacterial types were globally dispersed and displayed positive range-abundance relationships. Most bacterial populations were rare and exhibited a high degree of endemism, explaining the substantial differences in community composition observed over large spatial scales. Despite the relative physicochemical uniformity of deep-sea sediments, we identified indicators of productivity regimes, especially sediment organic matter content, as factors significantly associated with changes in bacterial community structure across the globe.

Methane Seep Carbonates Host Distinct, Diverse, and Dynamic Microbial Assemblages

Marine methane seeps are globally distributed geologic features in which reduced fluids, including methane, are advected upward from the subsurface. As a result of alkalinity generation during sulfate-coupled methane oxidation, authigenic carbonates form slabs, nodules, and extensive pavements. These carbonates shape the landscape within methane seeps, persist long after methane flux is diminished, and in some cases are incorporated into the geologic record. In this study, microbial assemblages from 134 native and experimental samples across 5,500 km, representing a range of habitat substrates (carbonate nodules and slabs, sediment, bottom water, and wood) and seepage conditions (active and low activity), were analyzed to address two fundamental questions of seep microbial ecology: (i) whether carbonates host distinct microbial assemblages and (ii) how sensitive microbial assemblages are to habitat substrate type and temporal shifts in methane seepage flux. Through massively parallel 16S rRNA gene sequencing and statistical analysis, native carbonates are shown to be reservoirs of distinct and highly diverse seep microbial assemblages. Unique coupled transplantation and colonization experiments on the seafloor demonstrated that carbonate-associated microbial assemblages are resilient to seep quiescence and reactive to seep activation over 13 months. Various rates of response to simulated seep quiescence and activation are observed among similar phylogenies (e.g., Chloroflexi operational taxonomic units) and similar metabolisms (e.g., putative S oxidizers), demonstrating the wide range of microbial sensitivity to changes in seepage flux. These results imply that carbonates do not passively record a time-integrated history of seep microorganisms but rather host distinct, diverse, and dynamic microbial assemblages.

IMPORTANCE

Since their discovery in 1984, the global distribution and importance of marine methane seeps have become increasingly clear. Much of our understanding of methane seep microorganisms-from metabolisms to community ecology-has stemmed from detailed studies of seep sediments. However, it has become apparent that carbonates represent a volumetrically significant habitat substrate at methane seeps. Through combined in situ characterization and incubation experiments, this study demonstrates that carbonates host microbial assemblages distinct from and more diverse than those of other seep habitats. This emphasizes the importance of seep carbonates as biodiversity locales. Furthermore, we demonstrate that carbonate-associated microbial assemblages are well adapted to withstand fluctuations in methane seepage, and we gain novel insight into particular taxa that are responsive (or recalcitrant) to changes in seep conditions.

Physiological and genomic characterization of Arcobacter anaerophilus IR-1 reveals new metabolic features in Epsilonproteobacteria

In this study we characterized and sequenced the genome of Arcobacter anaerophilus strain IR-1 isolated from enrichment cultures used in nitrate-amended corrosion experiments. A. anaerophilus IR-1 could grow lithoautotrophically on hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide and lithoheterothrophically on thiosulfate and elemental sulfur. In addition, the strain grew organoheterotrophically on yeast extract, peptone, and various organic acids. We show for the first time that Arcobacter could grow on the complex organic substrate tryptone and oxidize acetate with elemental sulfur as electron acceptor. Electron acceptors utilized by most Epsilonproteobacteria, such as oxygen, nitrate, and sulfur, were also used by A. anaerophilus IR-1. Strain IR-1 was also uniquely able to use iron citrate as electron acceptor. Comparative genomics of the Arcobacter strains A. butzleri RM4018, A. nitrofigilis CI and A. anaerophilus IR-1 revealed that the free-living strains had a wider metabolic range and more genes in common compared to the pathogen strain. The presence of genes for NAD(+)-reducing hydrogenase (hox) and dissimilatory iron reduction (fre) were unique for A. anaerophilus IR-1 among Epsilonproteobacteria. Finally, the new strain had an incomplete denitrification pathway where the end product was nitrite, which is different from other Arcobacter strains where the end product is ammonia. Altogether, our study shows that traditional characterization in combination with a modern genomics approach can expand our knowledge on free-living Arcobacter, and that this complementary approach could also provide invaluable knowledge about the physiology and metabolic pathways in other Epsilonproteobacteria from various environments.

A Post-Genomic View of the Ecophysiology, Catabolism and Biotechnological Relevance of Sulphate-Reducing Prokaryotes

Dissimilatory sulphate reduction is the unifying and defining trait of sulphate-reducing prokaryotes (SRP). In their predominant habitats, sulphate-rich marine sediments, SRP have long been recognized to be major players in the carbon and sulphur cycles. Other, more recently appreciated, ecophysiological roles include activity in the deep biosphere, symbiotic relations, syntrophic associations, human microbiome/health and long-distance electron transfer. SRP include a high diversity of organisms, with large nutritional versatility and broad metabolic capacities, including anaerobic degradation of aromatic compounds and hydrocarbons. Elucidation of novel catabolic capacities as well as progress in the understanding of metabolic and regulatory networks, energy metabolism, evolutionary processes and adaptation to changing environmental conditions has greatly benefited from genomics, functional OMICS approaches and advances in genetic accessibility and biochemical studies. Important biotechnological roles of SRP range from (i) wastewater and off gas treatment, (ii) bioremediation of metals and hydrocarbons and (iii) bioelectrochemistry, to undesired impacts such as (iv) souring in oil reservoirs and other environments, and (v) corrosion of iron and concrete. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of SRPs focusing mainly on works published after 2000. The wealth of publications in this period, covering many diverse areas, is a testimony to the large environmental, biogeochemical and technological relevance of these organisms and how much the field has progressed in these years, although many important questions and applications remain to be explored.