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Ibrahim HH, Singh MJ, Al-Bawri SS, Ibrahim SK, Islam MT, Alzamil A, Islam MS. Radio Frequency Energy Harvesting Technologies: A Comprehensive Review on Designing, Methodologies, and Potential Applications. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22114144. [PMID: 35684763 PMCID: PMC9185291 DOI: 10.3390/s22114144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Radio frequency energy harvesting (RF-EH) is a potential technology via the generation of electromagnetic waves. This advanced technology offers the supply of wireless power that is applicable for battery-free devices, which makes it a prospective alternative energy source for future applications. In addition to the dynamic energy recharging of wireless devices and a wide range of environmentally friendly energy source options, the emergence of the RF-EH technology is advantageous in facilitating various applications that require quality of service. This review highlights the abundant source of RF-EH from the surroundings sources, including nearby mobile phones, Wi-Fi, wireless local area network, broadcast television signal or DTS, and FM/AM radio signals. In contrast, the energy is captured by a receiving antenna and rectified into a working direct current voltage. This review also summarizes the power of RF-EH technology, which would provide a guideline for developing RF-EH units. The energy harvesting circuits depend on cutting-edge electrical technology to achieve significant efficiency, given that they are built to perform with considerably small current and voltage. Hence, the review includes a thorough analysis and discussion of various RF designs and their pros and cons. Finally, the latest applications of RF-EH are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Husam Hamid Ibrahim
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (H.H.I.); (S.K.I.)
| | - Mandeep Jit Singh
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (H.H.I.); (S.K.I.)
- Space Science Centre, Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (M.J.S.); (S.S.A.-B.); (M.T.I.)
| | - Samir Salem Al-Bawri
- Space Science Centre, Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia
- Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Petroleum, Hadhramout University, Al-Mukalla 50512, Hadhramout, Yemen
- Correspondence: (M.J.S.); (S.S.A.-B.); (M.T.I.)
| | - Sura Khalil Ibrahim
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (H.H.I.); (S.K.I.)
| | - Mohammad Tariqul Islam
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; (H.H.I.); (S.K.I.)
- Electrical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Ha’il, Ha’il 81481, Saudi Arabia;
- Correspondence: (M.J.S.); (S.S.A.-B.); (M.T.I.)
| | - Ahmed Alzamil
- Electrical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Ha’il, Ha’il 81481, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Md Shabiul Islam
- Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Persiaran Multimedia, Cyberjaya 63100, Selangor, Malaysia;
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Mohammed MOA, Elzaki AA, Babiker BA, Eid OI. Spatial variability of outdoor exposure to radiofrequency radiation from mobile phone base stations, in Khartoum, Sudan. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:15026-15039. [PMID: 34622411 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-16555-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The wide-spread exposure to constantly evolving wireless technologies believed to pose a serious health threat. Human beings are persistently exposed to RF radiation from mobile phones and their base stations. The current study aimed at classifying and characterizing the exposure to RF radiation from the mobile phone base stations. Spatial distribution measurements were carried out in Khartoum city during two time periods, first in 2012 (pilot survey) and again during Sept. 2019-Jan. 2020, to cover a total of 282 antennas operating with GSM900, GSM1800, and UMTS2100. The tested antennas belong to three mobile communication companies namely Sudani, Zain, and MTN companies, that randomly coded into company A, company B, and company C for security purposes. Measurements were performed using frequency-selective RF analyzer at fixed distances from the antennas/towers. Data were subjected to advanced repeated measures ANOVA, linear discriminant analysis (LDA), and spatial interpolation with ArcGIS. The averages of GSM900, GSM1800, and UMTS measurements were 0.01933 W/m2, 0.0067 W/m2, and 0.0046 W/m2. The high levels of power densities for each single antenna were recorded at 90 m, 110 m, 130 m, and at 150 m distances, for the majority (70%) of the measured antennas and the peak/highest values reported mainly at 110 m distance. Conversely, the discriminant loadings as part of LDA, suggested that, much of variance among measurements is attributed to measurements at 150 m, 170 m, and 190 m distances, while visual illustration of group centroids implied that, the RF signals of the different companies were measured separately which support accuracy of frequency-selective measurements. The LDA has confirmed the ANOVA results that, the overall difference between the three companies was statistically significant for UMTS, and GSM900 measurements but not significant for GSM1800 measurements. Kriging interpolation using ArcGIS provided a strong evidence of great spatial distribution of exposure across the study area, with market places and typical urban residential quarters showing highest levels of RF. Few extreme values exceeding ICNIRP limits are reported but excluded from the calculations because of an issue of normality of data that is considered a prerequisite for parametric data analysis. Existence of extreme levels of RF indicates a need for further investigation and some antennas of Company B are mounted on towers belongs to Company C, implying multi exposure. Unexpected pattern of RF levels continued to increase up to 190 m distance and possibly beyond 190 m is reported for UMTS measurements of Company C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed O A Mohammed
- Faculty of Public and Environmental Health, Department of Environmental Health & Environmental Studies, Khartoum University, Khartoum, Sudan.
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Public Health, Saudi Electronic University, Riyadh, KSA, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Ahmed A Elzaki
- Faculty of Public and Environmental Health, Department of Environmental Health & Environmental Studies, Khartoum University, Khartoum, Sudan
| | - Babiker A Babiker
- Faculty of Public and Environmental Health, Department of Environmental Health & Environmental Studies, Khartoum University, Khartoum, Sudan
| | - Omer I Eid
- Faculty of Sciences, Department of Physics, Khartoum University, Khartoum, Sudan
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Keshmiri S, Gholampour N, Mohtashami V. ASSESSING THE COMPLIANCE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS RADIATED BY BASE STATIONS AND WIFI ACCESS POINTS WITH INTERNATIONAL GUIDELINES ON UNIVERSITY CAMPUS. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2020; 192:1-13. [PMID: 33230555 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncaa183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents a series of electromagnetic field measurements performed on the campus of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in order to assess the compliance of radiation levels of cellular base stations and WiFi access points with international guidelines. A calibrated, broadband and isotropic probe is used and recommendations of International Telecommunication Union (ITU) are followed up throughout measurements. More than 300 outdoor and indoor locations have been systematically chosen for measurements. The recorded data are post-processed and compared with the guideline of International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). Measured power densities of WiFi access points are low and do not exceed 1% of the level allowed by ICNIRP. For cellular base stations, measured power density is usually low outdoors, but reaches up to 16% of the allowed radiation level in publicly accessible indoor locations. Comprehensive exposure assessment, as recommended by ITU, has been performed to estimate the maximum possible radiation of one indoor base station. It is concluded that precautionary actions have to be taken by university authorities to limit the presence of students in close proximity to specific indoor antennas. Moreover, comprehensive exposure assessment is more likely necessary for indoor base stations whereas such assessment is not usually required outdoors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajedeh Keshmiri
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Razavi Khorasan Province, 9177948944 Mashhad, Iran
| | - Neda Gholampour
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Razavi Khorasan Province, 9177948944 Mashhad, Iran
| | - Vahid Mohtashami
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Razavi Khorasan Province, 9177948944 Mashhad, Iran
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Kurnaz C, Mutlu M. Comprehensive radiofrequency electromagnetic field measurements and assessments: a city center example. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2020; 192:334. [PMID: 32382839 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-020-08312-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this study, radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) measurements were carried out between 2016 and 2018 in one the largest provinces of Turkey; measurement results are compared with the limit values determined by International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) and Turkey's Information and Communication Technologies Authority (ICTA). In the first stage of a three-phase evaluation, short-term RF-EMF measurements were conducted in 500 locations over a 2-year period. In the second stage, short-term RF-EMF measurement results were analyzed to determine selected locations for long-term RF-EMF measurements to be carried out, including variation of RF-EMF during the day. In the last stage, band selective measurements were taken and the main sources of RF-EMF in the environment were determined. Overall, RF-EMF values do not exceed the limits determined by ICNIRP and ICTA, and they are below levels that threaten public health. In the short-term RF-EMF measurements, RF-EMF levels doubled after fourth generation (4G) systems were introduced. In the long-term RF-EMF measurements, RF-EMF values in the day are 35.4% more than at night. The total measured RF-EMF within the city center is 99.3% base station sourced. Among the six main RF-EMF sources, the devices operating in UMTS2100 band have the most contribution to total RF-EMF of medium with 31.2%. Additionally, we found short-term average electric field strength data are best described by the "exponential distribution," while long-term RF-EMF measurement data is best described by the "Burr distribution."
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Affiliation(s)
- Cetin Kurnaz
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey.
| | - Mustafa Mutlu
- Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Ordu University, Ordu, Turkey
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Alhasnawi MKL, Abdulla S, Fatseas D, Addie RG. Spectral density constraints on wireless communication. Heliyon 2020; 6:e03979. [PMID: 32462089 PMCID: PMC7240121 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental exposure to man-made electromagnetic field (EMF) has been rising as modern technologies have grown and changes in social behavior have generated more synthetic sources. For safety of human health, EMF levels need to be regulated. The level of EMF should be well below levels where there might be harm, hence we do not expect to see any health effects at these levels. Current regulations fail to place a strict limit on EMF in situations where multiple nearby devices transmit simultaneously. The way these regulations are expressed needs great care because it will have an effect on the design of wireless communication systems. In this paper, it is argued that transmitted power constraints on wireless communication devices should be expressed in a different way, namely that devices should limit the EMF spectral density that they generate to the difference between the maximum allowed, by the standard, and the amount currently present, as measured by the device, in the spectral region where it is active. Note that the limit on EMF should be expressed in terms of its EMF spectral density rather than as a total EMF over each of a series of separate bands. If all devices limit their own EMF spectral density, in the spectral region where they are active, in such a way that total EMF spectral density is below the regulated limit in that region, then it is certain that the aggregate EMF spectral density will be below the regulated limit at all frequencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Kaisb Layous Alhasnawi
- Faculty of Administration and Economics, Sumer University, Thi-Qar, Iraq
- School of Agricultural, Computational and Environmental Science, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
| | - Shahab Abdulla
- Open Access College, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
| | - David Fatseas
- School of Agricultural, Computational and Environmental Science, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
| | - Ronald G. Addie
- School of Agricultural, Computational and Environmental Science, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
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