The intellectual property landscape for gene suppression technologies in plants

Models of Technology Transfer for Genome-Editing Technologies

Many of the fundamental inventions of genome editing, including meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and CRISPR, were first made at universities and patented to encourage commercial development. This gave rise to a diversity of technology transfer models but also conflicts among them. Against a broader historical and policy backdrop of university patenting and special challenges concerning research tools, we review the patent estates of genome editing and the diversity of technology transfer models employed to commercialize them, including deposit in the public domain, open access contracts, material transfer agreements, nonexclusive and exclusive licenses, surrogate licenses, and aggregated licenses. Advantages are found in this diversity, allowing experimentation and competition that we characterize as a federalism model of technology transfer. A notable feature of genome editing has been the rise and success of third-party licensing intermediaries. At the same time, the rapid pace of development of genome-editing technology is likely to erode the importance of patent estates and licensing regimes and may mitigate the effect of overly broad patents, giving rise to new substitutes to effectuate commercialization.

Silencing of cyp-33C9 Gene Affects the Reproduction and Pathogenicity of the Pine Wood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

Cytochrome P450 genes are very important for plant-parasitic nematodes to reproduce and to metabolize xenobiotic compounds generated by their host plants. The pine wood nematode (PWN), Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, causes very high annual economic losses by killing large numbers of pine trees across Asia and into Europe. In this study, we used RNA interference (RNAi) to analyze the function of the cyp-33C9 gene of PWN. Our results showed that expression of the cyp-33C9 gene was suppressed successfully after soaking nematodes for 24 h in cyp-33C9 double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). The silencing of the cyp-33C9 gene significantly decreased the feeding, reproduction, oviposition and egg hatch of B. xylophilus. Meanwhile, the migration speed of B. xylophilus in Pinus thunbergii was reduced in the early stages when the cyp-33C9 gene was silenced in the nematodes. Moreover, knockdown of the cyp-33C9 gene in B. xylophilus caused a decrease in pathogenicity to pine trees. These results suggest that the cyp-33C9 gene plays an important role in the reproduction and pathogenicity of B. xylophilus. This discovery identified several functions of the cyp-33C9 gene in B. xylophilus and provided useful information for understanding the molecular mechanism behind pine wilt disease caused by PWN.

Transgenic crops: trends and dynamics in the world and in Latin America

Transgenic crops have been the recipient of strong support as well as vigorously opposed opinions since their appearance. In any case, their growth throughout the world has been remarkable, and the production and commercialization of transgenics in Latin America has been especially significant. The purpose of the present study was to analyze transgenic crop production trends around the world and the relationship between the area allocated to the cultivation of transgenic crops and the profits generated by this activity. Data concerning Latin American countries and their participation in transgenic crop production are addressed specifically. The present study used covariance analysis, Pearson's correlation coefficient, time series analysis, Dicker-Fuller test, Durbin-Watson statistic, standardization, and different measures of central tendency. Results for the period between 1996 and 2016 show that, despite the significant increase in the area planted with this type of crops, their production presented a deterministic growth behavior, which is explained using a non-stationary model. Current data are insufficient to establish a causal relationship between cultivated hectares and their derived profits. Finally, the present study showed that production increased considerably from 2004 to 2016 in the cases of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay, as well as a positive relationship between the global area planted with transgenics and the corresponding area in these selected countries.

The use of agrobiodiversity for plant improvement and the intellectual property paradigm: institutional fit and legal tools for mass selection, conventional and molecular plant breeding

Focused on the impact of stringent intellectual property mechanisms over the uses of plant agricultural biodiversity in crop improvement, the article delves into a systematic analysis of the relationship between institutional paradigms and their technological contexts of application, identified as mass selection, controlled hybridisation, molecular breeding tools and transgenics. While the strong property paradigm has proven effective in the context of major leaps forward in genetic engineering, it faces a systematic breakdown when extended to mass selection, where innovation often displays a collective nature. However, it also creates partial blockages in those innovation schemes rested between on-farm observation and genetic modification, i.e. conventional plant breeding and upstream molecular biology research tools. Neither overly strong intellectual property rights, nor the absence of well delineated protection have proven an optimal fit for these two intermediary socio-technological systems of cumulative incremental innovation. To address these challenges, the authors look at appropriate institutional alternatives which can create effective incentives for in situ agrobiodiversity conservation and the equitable distribution of technologies in plant improvement, using the flexibilities of the TRIPS Agreement, the liability rules set forth in patents or plant variety rights themselves (in the form of farmers', breeders' and research exceptions), and other ad hoc reward regimes.