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Muhammad AY, Amonov M, Murugaiah C, Baig AA, Yusoff M. Intestinal colonization against Vibrio cholerae: host and microbial resistance mechanisms. AIMS Microbiol 2023; 9:346-374. [PMID: 37091815 PMCID: PMC10113163 DOI: 10.3934/microbiol.2023019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Vibrio cholerae is a non-invasive enteric pathogen known to cause a major public health problem called cholera. The pathogen inhabits the aquatic environment while outside the human host, it is transmitted into the host easily through ingesting contaminated food and water containing the vibrios, thus causing diarrhoea and vomiting. V. cholerae must resist several layers of colonization resistance mechanisms derived from the host or the gut commensals to successfully survive, grow, and colonize the distal intestinal epithelium, thus causing an infection. The colonization resistance mechanisms derived from the host are not specific to V. cholerae but to all invading pathogens. However, some of the gut commensal-derived colonization resistance may be more specific to the pathogen, making it more challenging to overcome. Consequently, the pathogen has evolved well-coordinated mechanisms that sense and utilize the anti-colonization factors to modulate events that promote its survival and colonization in the gut. This review is aimed at discussing how V. cholerae interacts and resists both host- and microbe-specific colonization resistance mechanisms to cause infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Malik Amonov
- Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
- * Correspondence: ; Tel: +60189164478
| | | | - Atif Amin Baig
- University Institute of Public Health, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, The University of Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Marina Yusoff
- Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
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2
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Yu J, Cheon JH. Microbial Modulation in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Immune Netw 2022; 22:e44. [PMID: 36627937 PMCID: PMC9807960 DOI: 10.4110/in.2022.22.e44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Gut dysbiosis is one of prominent features in inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) which are of an unknown etiology. Although the cause-and-effect relationship between IBD and gut dysbiosis remains to be elucidated, one area of research has focused on the management of IBD by modulating and correcting gut dysbiosis. The use of antibiotics, probiotics either with or without prebiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation from healthy donors are representative methods for modulating the intestinal microbiota ecosystem. The gut microbiota is not a simple assembly of bacteria, fungi, and viruses, but a complex organ-like community system composed of numerous kinds of microorganisms. Thus, studies on specific changes in the gut microbiota depending on which treatment option is applied are very limited. Here, we review previous studies on microbial modulation as a therapeutic option for IBD and its significance in the pathogenesis of IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongwook Yu
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea
| | - Jae Hee Cheon
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea
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3
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Allen JM, Mackos AR, Jaggers RM, Brewster PC, Webb M, Lin CH, Ladaika C, Davies R, White P, Loman BR, Bailey MT. Psychological stress disrupts intestinal epithelial cell function and mucosal integrity through microbe and host-directed processes. Gut Microbes 2022; 14:2035661. [PMID: 35184677 PMCID: PMC8865257 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2022.2035661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychological stress alters the gut microbiota and predisposes individuals to increased risk for enteric infections and chronic bowel conditions. Intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) are responsible for maintaining homeostatic interactions between the gut microbiota and its host. In this study, we hypothesized that disruption to colonic IECs is a key factor underlying stress-induced disturbances to intestinal homeostasis. Conventionally raised (CONV-R) and germ-free (GF) mice were exposed to a social disruption stressor (Str) to ascertain how stress modifies colonic IECs, the mucosal layer, and the gut microbiota. RNA sequencing of IECs isolated from CONV-R mice revealed a robust pro-inflammatory (Saa1, Il18), pro-oxidative (Duox2, Nos2), and antimicrobial (Reg3b/g) transcriptional profile as a result of Str. This response occurred concomitant to mucus layer thinning and signs of microbial translocation. In contrast to their CONV-R counterparts, IECs from GF mice or mice treated with broad spectrum antibiotics exhibited no detectable transcriptional changes in response to Str. Nevertheless, IECs from Str-exposed GF mice exhibited an altered response to ex vivo bacterial challenge (increased dual Oxidase-2 [Duox2] and nitric oxide synthase-2 (Nos2)), indicating that STR primes host IEC pro-oxidative responses. In CONV-R mice stress-induced increases in colonic Duox2 and Nos2 (ROS generating enzymes) strongly paralleled changes to microbiome composition and function, evidencing Str-mediated ROS production as a primary factor mediating gut-microbiota dysbiosis. In conclusion, a mouse model of social stress disrupts colonic epithelial and mucosal integrity, a response dependent on an intact microbiota and host stress signals. Together these preclinical findings may provide new insight into mechanisms of stress-associated bowel pathologies in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob M. Allen
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois,Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio,CONTACT Jacob M. Allen Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 906 S. Goodwin Ave, Urbana61820, Illinois
| | - Amy R. Mackos
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio,College of Nursing, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Robert M. Jaggers
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Patricia C. Brewster
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Mikaela Webb
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Chia-Hao Lin
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Chris Ladaika
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Ronald Davies
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Peter White
- Steve and Cindy Rasmussen Institute for Genomic Medicine, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Brett R. Loman
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio,Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Michael T. Bailey
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio,Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio,Oral and Gi Microbiology Research Affinity Group, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio,Michael T. Bailey Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio
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4
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Evaluating Cefoperazone-Induced Gut Metabolic Functional Changes in MR1-Deficient Mice. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12050380. [PMID: 35629884 PMCID: PMC9146321 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12050380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Mucosal-associated invariant T cells are activated following the recognition of bacterial antigens presented by the major histocompatibility complex class I-related molecule (MR1). Previous metagenomics data showed that MR1−/− knock-out (KO) mice had distinct microbiota and displayed a resistance to Clostridioides difficile (CDI) colonization vs. wild-type (WT) mice. In the present study, LC/MS-based untargeted metabolomics are applied to evaluate the changes in metabolic activities, in accordance with the changes in gut microbiota caused by cefoperazone (Cef) treatment. Adult C57Bl/6J WT and MR1−/− KO mice were given sterile drinking water or spiked with 0.5 mg/mL Cef ad libitum for five days. Fecal pellets were collected daily, and both small intestinal and cecal contents were harvested at sacrifice. The PLS-DA score plots of the metabolomic data indicate that the microbiota is relatively less disturbed by Cef treatment in KO mice, which is consistent with the metagenomics data. The most noticeable differences in the metabolome of KO and WT mice were the increases in carbohydrates in the WT mice, but not in the KO mice. Metabolic functional biomarkers were identified through the correlation analysis of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and riboflavin. These detected metabolic functional biomarkers could provide information complementary to metagenomics data.
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ToxT Regulon Is Nonessential for Vibrio cholerae Colonization in Adult Mice. Appl Environ Microbiol 2022; 88:e0007222. [PMID: 35384706 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00072-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Vibrio cholerae is the causative agent of cholera, a life-threatening diarrheal disease in humans. The ability of V. cholerae to colonize the intestine of different animals is a key factor for its fitness and transmissibility between hosts. Many virulence factors, including the ToxT regulon, have been identified to be the major components allowing V. cholerae to colonize the small intestine of suckling mice; however, the mechanism of V. cholerae colonization in the adult mammalian intestine is unclear. In this study, using the streptomycin-treated adult mouse animal model, we characterized the role of the ToxT regulon in V. cholerae colonization in adult mammalian intestine. We first found that the activity of TcpP regulating ToxT regulon expression was attenuated by intestinal reactive oxygen species (ROS). We then found that V. cholerae containing a deletion of the ToxT regulon showed a competition advantage in colonizing adult mice; however, a mutant containing a constitutively active ToxT regulon showed a significant defect in colonizing adult mice. Constitutively producing the virulence factors in the ToxT regulon causes a V. cholerae competition defect in nutrient-limiting conditions. The results of this study demonstrate that modulating the activity of the ToxT regulon through ROS sensed by TcpP is critical for V. cholerae to enhance its colonization in the intestine of adult mice. IMPORTANCE Vibrio cholerae can inhabit both marine and freshwater ecosystems and can also enter and proliferate in the intestine of different animals which consume contaminated food or water. To successfully colonize the intestines of different hosts, V. cholerae coordinates its gene expression in response to different environments. Here, we describe how V. cholerae modulates the activity of the ToxT regulon by TcpP sensing ROS signals in the intestine of adult mice to better survive in this environment. We found that the constitutively active ToxT regulon causes V. cholerae growth retardation and colonization defect in adult mice. Our work highlights the distinctive role that regulating the activity of the ToxT regulon plays for V. cholerae to achieve full survival fitness in the adult mammalian intestine.
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Barrassso K, Chac D, Debela MD, Geigel C, Steenhaut A, Rivera Seda A, Dunmire CN, Harris JB, Larocque RC, Midani FS, Qadri F, Yan J, Weil AA, Ng WL. Impact of a human gut microbe on Vibrio cholerae host colonization through biofilm enhancement. eLife 2022; 11:73010. [PMID: 35343438 PMCID: PMC8993218 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies indicate that the human intestinal microbiota could impact the outcome of infection by Vibrio cholerae, the etiological agent of the diarrheal disease cholera. A commensal bacterium, Paracoccus aminovorans, was previously identified in high abundance in stool collected from individuals infected with V. cholerae when compared to stool from uninfected persons. However, if and how P. aminovorans interacts with V. cholerae has not been experimentally determined; moreover, whether any association between this bacterium alters the behaviors of V. cholerae to affect the disease outcome is unclear. Here, we show that P. aminovorans and V. cholerae together form dual-species biofilm structure at the air–liquid interface, with previously uncharacterized novel features. Importantly, the presence of P. aminovorans within the murine small intestine enhances V. cholerae colonization in the same niche that is dependent on the Vibrio exopolysaccharide and other major components of mature V. cholerae biofilm. These studies illustrate that multispecies biofilm formation is a plausible mechanism used by a gut microbe to increase the virulence of the pathogen, and this interaction may alter outcomes in enteric infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey Barrassso
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Seattle, United States
| | - Denise Chac
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Meti D Debela
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, United States
| | - Catherine Geigel
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, United States
| | - Anjali Steenhaut
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, United States
| | - Abigail Rivera Seda
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, United States
| | - Chelsea N Dunmire
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Jason B Harris
- Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, United States
| | - Regina C Larocque
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, United States
| | - Firas S Midani
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | | | - Jing Yan
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Yale University, New Haven, United States
| | - Ana A Weil
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Wai-Leung Ng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, United States
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7
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Kim DH, Park J, Kim S, Yoon MY, Ma HW, Park IS, Son M, Kim JH, Kim TI, Kim WH, Yoon SS, Kim SW, Cheon JH. An Escherichia coli strain with extra catalase activity protects against murine colitis by scavenging hydrogen peroxide and regulating regulatory t cell/interleukin-17 pathways. Free Radic Biol Med 2021; 174:110-120. [PMID: 34358646 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract whose occurrence is attributed to various factors, including genetic factors, immune response, microbial changes, and oxidative stress. Microbial-targeted therapy has emerged as an alternative to immunosuppressive therapy for IBD. METHODS The effects of an atypical commensal Escherichia coli strain harboring an additional catalase gene (compared to typical E. coli strain) on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis were explored in mice. RESULTS The atypical E. coli (atEc) significantly restored body weight, reduced disease activity score, and improved histological scores in mice with colitis. Hydrogen peroxide levels in colitis mice were noticeably decreased when the mice were administered atEc. The proinflammatory cytokine levels were decreased and regulatory T cell numbers were increased after the administration of atEc. The abundance of Firmicutes was significantly recovered, while that of Proteobacteria decreased in atEc -treated mice compared with that in vehicle-treated wild-type mice. To investigate the role of interleukin (IL)-17A in mediating the anti-inflammatory effects of the atEc, IL-17A‒knockout mice were orally administered atEc. Clinical and immune responses and microbial composition were significantly reduced in IL-17A‒knockout mice compared with those in wild-type mice. CONCLUSIONS atEc ameliorates colonic inflammation by controlling hydrogen peroxide levels, immune responses (including regulatory T cells and IL-17A), and microbial composition. atEc could be a novel candidate of probiotic for IBD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Hye Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jihye Park
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Soochan Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Mi Young Yoon
- Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyun Woo Ma
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - I Seul Park
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Mijeong Son
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Ji Hyung Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Tae Il Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Won Ho Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sang Sun Yoon
- Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Seung Won Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea.
| | - Jae Hee Cheon
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea; Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea.
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Lee JY, Bae E, Kim HY, Lee KM, Yoon SS, Lee DC. High-Fat-Diet-Induced Oxidative Stress Linked to the Increased Colonization of Lactobacillus sakei in an Obese Population. Microbiol Spectr 2021; 9:e0007421. [PMID: 34190593 PMCID: PMC8552675 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00074-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity is a major public health problem related to various chronic health conditions. Lactobacillus species has been reported in obese individuals; however, its role is unknown. We compared the abundance and composition of Lactobacillus species by analyzing feces from 64 healthy control subjects and 88 obese subjects. We isolated one Lactobacillus strain from the feces of a subject with obesity and further analyzed its genetic and molecular features. We found that an increased abundance and higher prevalence of Lactobacillus sakei distinguished the fecal microbiota of the obese group from that of healthy subjects and that it was related to the increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by higher fat intake. The L. sakei ob4.1 strain, isolated from the feces of a subject with obesity, showed high catalase activity, which was regulated by oxidative stress at the gene transcription level. L. sakei ob4.1 maintained colon epithelial cell adhesion ability under ROS stimulation, and treatment with saturated fatty acid increased colon epithelial ROS levels in a dose-dependent manner; however, L. sakei ob4.1 did not change the level of fat-induced colon epithelial ROS. Exposing mice to a high-fat diet revealed that high-fat-diet-induced colon ROS was associated with the increased colonization of L. sakei ob4.1 through catalase activity. Four-week supplementation with this strain in mice fed a high-fat diet did not change their body weights or ROS levels. A high-fat diet induces changes in the colon environment by increasing ROS levels, which provides a colonization benefit to an L. sakei strain with high catalase activity. IMPORTANCELactobacillus provides many health benefits; its various species are widely used as probiotics. However, an increased abundance of Lactobacillus has been reported in obesity, and the role of Lactobacillus strains in obesity remains unknown. We found a high abundance of the Lactobacillus sakei species in a group of obese subjects and examined its relationship with a high-fat diet and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the feces. To find the underlying mechanism, we analyzed and characterized an L. sakei strain isolated from a severely obese individual. We found that higher gut oxidative stress could link high-fat-diet-induced obesity and L. sakei. This translational research identifies the roles of the host gut environment in the colonization and survival of L. sakei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jee-Yon Lee
- Department of Family Medicine, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Chaum Life Center, CHA Bundang Medical Center, School of Medicine, CHA University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Eunsoo Bae
- Chaum Life Center, CHA Bundang Medical Center, School of Medicine, CHA University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwa Young Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brain Korea 21 Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kang-Mu Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brain Korea 21 Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang Sun Yoon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brain Korea 21 Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
- Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Duk-Chul Lee
- Department of Family Medicine, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Jung DH, Yong JH, Hwang W, Yoon MY, Yoon SS. An efficient system for intestinal on-site butyrate production using novel microbiome-derived esterases. J Biol Eng 2021; 15:9. [PMID: 33676548 PMCID: PMC7936488 DOI: 10.1186/s13036-021-00259-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Short-chain fatty acids, especially butyrate, play beneficial roles in sustaining gastrointestinal health. However, due to limitations associated with direct consumption of butyrate, there has been interest in using prodrugs of butyrate. Tributyrin (TB), a triglyceride composed of three butyrate molecules and a glycerol, is a well-studied precursor of butyrate. We screened a metagenome library consisting of 5760 bacterial artificial chromosome clones, with DNA inserts originating from mouse microbiomes, and identified two clones that efficiently hydrolyse TB into butyrate. Nucleotide sequence analysis indicated that inserts in these two clones are derived from unknown microbes. BLASTp analysis, however, revealed that each insert contains a gene homologous to acetylesterase or esterase genes, from Clostridium spp. and Bacteroides spp., respectively. Predicted structures of these two proteins both contain serine-histidine-aspartate catalytic triad, highly conserved in the family of esterases. Escherichia coli host expressing each of the two candidate genes invariably produced greater amounts of butyrate in the presence of TB. Importantly, administration of TB together with cloned E. coli cells alleviated inflammatory symptoms in a mouse model of acute colitis. Based on these results, we established an efficient on-site and real-time butyrate production system that releases butyrate in a controlled manner inside the intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dah Hyun Jung
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea.,Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Hyun Yong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea.,Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Wontae Hwang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea.,Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi Young Yoon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea.,Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Sun Yoon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, South Korea. .,Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea. .,Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea. .,Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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10
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Qin Z, Yang X, Chen G, Park C, Liu Z. Crosstalks Between Gut Microbiota and Vibrio Cholerae. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:582554. [PMID: 33194819 PMCID: PMC7644805 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.582554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Vibrio cholerae, the causative agent of cholera, could proliferate in aquatic environment and infect humans through contaminated food and water. Enormous microorganisms residing in human gastrointestinal tract establish a special microecological system, which immediately responds to the invasion of V. cholerae, through “colonization resistance” mechanisms, such as antimicrobial peptide production, nutrients competition, and intestinal barrier maintenances. Meanwhile, V. cholerae could quickly sense those signals and modulate the expression of relevant genes to circumvent those stresses during infection, leading to successful colonization on the surface of small intestinal epithelial cells. In this review, we summarized the crosstalks profiles between gut microbiota and V. cholerae in the terms of Type VI Secretion System (T6SS), Quorum Sensing (QS), Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)/pH stress, and Bioactive metabolites. These mechanisms can also be applied to molecular bacterial pathogenesis of other pathogens in host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixin Qin
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaoman Yang
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Guozhong Chen
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Chaiwoo Park
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhi Liu
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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11
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Ramamurthy T, Nandy RK, Mukhopadhyay AK, Dutta S, Mutreja A, Okamoto K, Miyoshi SI, Nair GB, Ghosh A. Virulence Regulation and Innate Host Response in the Pathogenicity of Vibrio cholerae. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:572096. [PMID: 33102256 PMCID: PMC7554612 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.572096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The human pathogen Vibrio cholerae is the causative agent of severe diarrheal disease known as cholera. Of the more than 200 "O" serogroups of this pathogen, O1 and O139 cause cholera outbreaks and epidemics. The rest of the serogroups, collectively known as non-O1/non-O139 cause sporadic moderate or mild diarrhea and also systemic infections. Pathogenic V. cholerae circulates between nutrient-rich human gut and nutrient-deprived aquatic environment. As an autochthonous bacterium in the environment and as a human pathogen, V. cholerae maintains its survival and proliferation in these two niches. Growth in the gastrointestinal tract involves expression of several genes that provide bacterial resistance against host factors. An intricate regulatory program involving extracellular signaling inputs is also controlling this function. On the other hand, the ability to store carbon as glycogen facilitates bacterial fitness in the aquatic environment. To initiate the infection, V. cholerae must colonize the small intestine after successfully passing through the acid barrier in the stomach and survive in the presence of bile and antimicrobial peptides in the intestinal lumen and mucus, respectively. In V. cholerae, virulence is a multilocus phenomenon with a large functionally associated network. More than 200 proteins have been identified that are functionally linked to the virulence-associated genes of the pathogen. Several of these genes have a role to play in virulence and/or in functions that have importance in the human host or the environment. A total of 524 genes are differentially expressed in classical and El Tor strains, the two biotypes of V. cholerae serogroup O1. Within the host, many immune and biological factors are able to induce genes that are responsible for survival, colonization, and virulence. The innate host immune response to V. cholerae infection includes activation of several immune protein complexes, receptor-mediated signaling pathways, and other bactericidal proteins. This article presents an overview of regulation of important virulence factors in V. cholerae and host response in the context of pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ranjan K Nandy
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Asish K Mukhopadhyay
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Shanta Dutta
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Ankur Mutreja
- Global Health-Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Keinosuke Okamoto
- Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan.,Collaborative Research Center of Okayama University for Infectious Diseases in India, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
| | - Shin-Ichi Miyoshi
- Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - G Balakrish Nair
- Microbiome Laboratory, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Amit Ghosh
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, India
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12
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Saha O, Hoque MN, Islam OK, Rahaman MM, Sultana M, Hossain MA. Multidrug-Resistant Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli Strains and Association of Their Virulence Genes in Bangladesh. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1135. [PMID: 32727140 PMCID: PMC7465658 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8081135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 07/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) strains are the chief etiology of colibacillosis worldwide. The present study investigated the circulating phylotypes, existence of virulence genes (VGs), and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in 392 APEC isolates, obtained from 130 samples belonged to six farms using both phenotypic and PCR-based molecular approaches. Congo red binding (CRB) assay confirmed 174 APEC isolates which were segregated into ten, nine, and eight distinct genotypes by RAPD assay (discriminatory index, DI = 0.8707), BOX-PCR (DI = 0.8591) and ERIC-PCR (DI = 0.8371), respectively. The combination of three phylogenetic markers (chuA, yjaA and DNA fragment TspE4.C2) classified APEC isolates into B23 (37.36%), A1 (33.91%), D2 (11.49%), B22 (9.20%), and B1 (8.05%) phylotypes. Majority of the APEC isolates (75-100%) harbored VGs (ial, fimH, crl, papC, and cjrC). These VGs (papC and cjrC) and phylotypes (D2 and B2) of APEC had significant (p = 0.004) association with colibacillosis. Phylogenetic analysis showed two distinct clades (clade A and clade B) of APEC, where clade A had 98-100% similarity with E. coli APEC O78 and E. coli EHEC strains, and clade B had closest relationship with E. coli O169:H41 strain. Interestingly, phylogroups B2 and D2 were found in the APEC strains of both clades, while the strains from phylogroups A1 and B1 were found in clade A only. In this study, 81.71% of the isolates were biofilm formers, and possessed plasmids of varying ranges (1.0 to 54 kb). In vitro antibiogram profiling revealed that 100% isolates were resistant to ≥3 antibiotics, of which 61.96%, 55.24%, 53.85%, 51.16% and 45.58% isolates in phylotypes B1, D2, B22, B23, and A1, respectively, were resistant to these antimicrobials. The resistance patterns varied among different phylotypes, notably in phylotype B22, showing the highest resistance to ampicillin (90.91%), nalidixic acid (90.11%), tetracycline (83.72%), and nitrofurantoin (65.12%). Correspondence analysis also showed significant correlation among phylotypes with CRB (p = 0.008), biofilm formation (p = 0.02), drug resistance (p = 0.03), and VGs (p = 0.06). This report demonstrated that B2 and A1 phylotypes are dominantly circulating APEC phylotypes in Bangladesh; however, B2 and D2 are strongly associated with the pathogenicity. A high prevalence of antibiotic-resistant APEC strains from different phylotypes suggest the use of organic antimicrobial compounds, and/or metals, and the rotational use of antibiotics in poultry farms in Bangladesh.
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Affiliation(s)
- Otun Saha
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh; (O.S.); (M.N.H.); (O.K.I.); (M.M.R.)
| | - M. Nazmul Hoque
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh; (O.S.); (M.N.H.); (O.K.I.); (M.M.R.)
- Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Reproductive Health, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur-1706, Bangladesh
| | - Ovinu Kibria Islam
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh; (O.S.); (M.N.H.); (O.K.I.); (M.M.R.)
- Department of Microbiology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore-7408, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Mizanur Rahaman
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh; (O.S.); (M.N.H.); (O.K.I.); (M.M.R.)
| | - Munawar Sultana
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh; (O.S.); (M.N.H.); (O.K.I.); (M.M.R.)
| | - M. Anwar Hossain
- Department of Microbiology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh; (O.S.); (M.N.H.); (O.K.I.); (M.M.R.)
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13
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Levade I, Saber MM, Midani FS, Chowdhury F, Khan AI, Begum YA, Ryan ET, David LA, Calderwood SB, Harris JB, LaRocque RC, Qadri F, Shapiro BJ, Weil AA. Predicting Vibrio cholerae Infection and Disease Severity Using Metagenomics in a Prospective Cohort Study. J Infect Dis 2020; 223:342-351. [PMID: 32610345 PMCID: PMC7857355 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiaa358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Susceptibility to Vibrio cholerae infection is affected by blood group, age, and preexisting immunity, but these factors only partially explain who becomes infected. A recent study used 16S ribosomal RNA amplicon sequencing to quantify the composition of the gut microbiome and identify predictive biomarkers of infection with limited taxonomic resolution. METHODS To achieve increased resolution of gut microbial factors associated with V. cholerae susceptibility and identify predictors of symptomatic disease, we applied deep shotgun metagenomic sequencing to a cohort of household contacts of patients with cholera. RESULTS Using machine learning, we resolved species, strains, gene families, and cellular pathways in the microbiome at the time of exposure to V. cholerae to identify markers that predict infection and symptoms. Use of metagenomic features improved the precision and accuracy of prediction relative to 16S sequencing. We also predicted disease severity, although with greater uncertainty than our infection prediction. Species within the genera Prevotella and Bifidobacterium predicted protection from infection, and genes involved in iron metabolism were also correlated with protection. CONCLUSION Our results highlight the power of metagenomics to predict disease outcomes and suggest specific species and genes for experimental testing to investigate mechanisms of microbiome-related protection from cholera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inès Levade
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Morteza M Saber
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Firas S Midani
- Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA,Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Fahima Chowdhury
- Center for Vaccine Sciences, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Ashraful I Khan
- Center for Vaccine Sciences, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Yasmin A Begum
- Center for Vaccine Sciences, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Edward T Ryan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA,Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Lawrence A David
- Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA,Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Stephen B Calderwood
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jason B Harris
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA,Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Regina C LaRocque
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Firdausi Qadri
- Center for Vaccine Sciences, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - B Jesse Shapiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada,McGill Genome Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada,Correspondence: B. Jesse Shapiro, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada ()
| | - Ana A Weil
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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14
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Greyson-Gaito CJ, Bartley TJ, Cottenie K, Jarvis WMC, Newman AEM, Stothart MR. Into the wild: microbiome transplant studies need broader ecological reality. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20192834. [PMID: 32097591 PMCID: PMC7062022 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.2834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Gut microbial communities (microbiomes) profoundly shape the ecology and evolution of multicellular life. Interactions between host and microbiome appear to be reciprocal, and ecological theory is now being applied to better understand how hosts and their microbiome influence each other. However, some ecological processes that underlie reciprocal host-microbiome interactions may be obscured by the current convention of highly controlled transplantation experiments. Although these approaches have yielded invaluable insights, there is a need for a broader array of approaches to fully understand host-microbiome reciprocity. Using a directed review, we surveyed the breadth of ecological reality in the current literature on gut microbiome transplants with non-human recipients. For 55 studies, we categorized nine key experimental conditions that impact the ecological reality (EcoReality) of the transplant, including host taxon match and donor environment. Using these categories, we rated the EcoReality of each transplant. Encouragingly, the breadth of EcoReality has increased over time, but some components of EcoReality are still relatively unexplored, including recipient host environment and microbiome state. The conceptual framework we develop here maps the landscape of possible EcoReality to highlight where fundamental ecological processes can be considered in future transplant experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Timothy J. Bartley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada
| | - Karl Cottenie
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Will M. C. Jarvis
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Amy E. M. Newman
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mason R. Stothart
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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15
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Kim SW, Kim S, Son M, Cheon JH, Park YS. Melatonin controls microbiota in colitis by goblet cell differentiation and antimicrobial peptide production through Toll-like receptor 4 signalling. Sci Rep 2020; 10:2232. [PMID: 32042047 PMCID: PMC7010660 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-59314-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial dysbiosis has long been postulated to be associated with the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Although evidence supporting the anti-colitic effects of melatonin have been accumulating, it is not clear how melatonin affects the microbiota. Herein, we investigated the effects of melatonin on the microbiome in colitis and identified involvement of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 signalling in the effects. Melatonin improved dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis and reverted microbial dysbiosis in wild-type (WT) mice but not in TLR4 knockout (KO) mice. Induction of goblet cells was observed with melatonin administration, which was accompanied by suppression of Il1b and Il17a and induction of melatonin receptor and Reg3β, an antimicrobial peptide (AMP) against Gram-negative bacteria. In vitro, melatonin treatment of HT-29 intestinal epithelial cells promotes mucin and wound healing and inhibits growth of Escherichia coli. Herein, we showed that melatonin significantly increases goblet cells, Reg3β, and the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteriodetes by suppressing Gram-negative bacteria through TLR4 signalling. Our study suggests that sensing of bacteria through TLR4 and regulation of bacteria through altered goblet cells and AMPs is involved in the anti-colitic effects of melatonin. Melatonin may have use in therapeutics for IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Won Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Soochan Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Mijeong Son
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jae Hee Cheon
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Young Sook Park
- Department of Internal Medicine, Eulji Hospital, Eulji University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.
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16
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You JS, Yong JH, Kim GH, Moon S, Nam KT, Ryu JH, Yoon MY, Yoon SS. Commensal-derived metabolites govern Vibrio cholerae pathogenesis in host intestine. MICROBIOME 2019; 7:132. [PMID: 31521198 PMCID: PMC6744661 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-019-0746-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent evidence suggests that the commensal microbes act as a barrier against invading pathogens and enteric infections are the consequences of multi-layered interactions among commensals, pathogens, and the host intestinal tissue. However, it remains unclear how perturbations of the gut microbiota compromise host infection resistance, especially through changes at species and metabolite levels. RESULTS Here, we illustrate how Bacteroides vulgatus, a dominant species of the Bacteroidetes phylum in mouse intestine, suppresses infection by Vibrio cholerae, an important human pathogen. Clindamycin (CL) is an antibiotic that selectively kills anaerobic bacteria, and accordingly Bacteroidetes are completely eradicated from CL-treated mouse intestines. The Bacteroidetes-depleted adult mice developed severe cholera-like symptoms, when infected with V. cholerae. Germ-free mice mono-associated with B. vulgatus became resistant to V. cholerae infection. Levels of V. cholerae growth-inhibitory metabolites including short-chain fatty acids plummeted upon CL treatment, while levels of compounds that enhance V. cholerae proliferation were elevated. Furthermore, the intestinal colonization process of V. cholerae was well-simulated in CL-treated adult mice. CONCLUSIONS Overall, we provide insights into how a symbiotic microbe and a pathogenic intruder interact inside host intestine. We identified B. vulgatus as an indigenous microbial species that can suppress intestinal infection. Our results also demonstrate that commensal-derived metabolites are a critical determinant for host resistance against V. cholerae infection, and that CL pretreatment of adult mice generates a simple yet useful model of cholera infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Sun You
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu Seoul, Seoul, 03722, Korea
- Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Ji Hyun Yong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu Seoul, Seoul, 03722, Korea
- Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Gwang Hee Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu Seoul, Seoul, 03722, Korea
- Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Sungmin Moon
- Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea
- Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Ki Taek Nam
- Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea
- Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Ji Hwan Ryu
- Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea
- Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Mi Young Yoon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu Seoul, Seoul, 03722, Korea.
- Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea.
- Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea.
| | - Sang Sun Yoon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu Seoul, Seoul, 03722, Korea.
- Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Sciences, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea.
- Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03722, Korea.
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17
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Midani FS, Weil AA, Chowdhury F, Begum YA, Khan AI, Debela MD, Durand HK, Reese AT, Nimmagadda SN, Silverman JD, Ellis CN, Ryan ET, Calderwood SB, Harris JB, Qadri F, David LA, LaRocque RC. Human Gut Microbiota Predicts Susceptibility to Vibrio cholerae Infection. J Infect Dis 2019; 218:645-653. [PMID: 29659916 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cholera is a public health problem worldwide, and the risk factors for infection are only partially understood. Methods We prospectively studied household contacts of patients with cholera to compare those who were infected to those who were not. We constructed predictive machine learning models of susceptibility, using baseline gut microbiota data. We identified bacterial taxa associated with susceptibility to Vibrio cholerae infection and tested these taxa for interactions with V. cholerae in vitro. Results We found that machine learning models based on gut microbiota, as well as models based on known clinical and epidemiological risk factors, predicted V. cholerae infection. A predictive gut microbiota of roughly 100 bacterial taxa discriminated between contacts who developed infection and those who did not. Susceptibility to cholera was associated with depleted levels of microbes from the phylum Bacteroidetes. By contrast, a microbe associated with cholera by our modeling framework, Paracoccus aminovorans, promoted the in vitro growth of V. cholerae. Gut microbiota structure, clinical outcome, and age were also linked. Conclusion These findings support the hypothesis that abnormal gut microbial communities are a host factor related to V. cholerae susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firas S Midani
- Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Ana A Weil
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Fahima Chowdhury
- Mucosal Immunology and Vaccinology Laboratory, Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka
| | - Yasmin A Begum
- Mucosal Immunology and Vaccinology Laboratory, Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka
| | - Ashraful I Khan
- Mucosal Immunology and Vaccinology Laboratory, Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka
| | - Meti D Debela
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Heather K Durand
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Aspen T Reese
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Sai N Nimmagadda
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Justin D Silverman
- Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Medical Scientist Training Program, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Crystal N Ellis
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences University, Boston
| | - Edward T Ryan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Stephen B Calderwood
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Jason B Harris
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Firdausi Qadri
- Mucosal Immunology and Vaccinology Laboratory, Infectious Diseases Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka
| | - Lawrence A David
- Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Center for Genomic and Computational Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Regina C LaRocque
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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18
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Schifano E, Marazzato M, Ammendolia MG, Zanni E, Ricci M, Comanducci A, Goldoni P, Conte MP, Uccelletti D, Longhi C. Virulence behavior of uropathogenic Escherichia coli strains in the host model Caenorhabditis elegans. Microbiologyopen 2018; 8:e00756. [PMID: 30381890 PMCID: PMC6562141 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are among the most common bacterial infections in humans. Although a number of bacteria can cause UTIs, most cases are due to infection by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC). UPEC are a genetically heterogeneous group that exhibit several virulence factors associated with colonization and persistence of bacteria in the urinary tract. Caenorhabditis elegans is a tiny, free-living nematode found worldwide. Because many biological pathways are conserved in C. elegans and humans, the nematode has been increasingly used as a model organism to study virulence mechanisms of microbial infections and innate immunity. The virulence of UPEC strains, characterized for antimicrobial resistance, pathogenicity-related genes associated with virulence and phylogenetic group belonging was evaluated by measuring the survival of C. elegans exposed to pure cultures of these strains. Our results showed that urinary strains can kill the nematode and that the clinical isolate ECP110 was able to efficiently colonize the gut and to inhibit the host oxidative response to infection. Our data support that C. elegans, a free-living nematode found worldwide, could serve as an in vivo model to distinguish, among uropathogenic E. coli, different virulence behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Schifano
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Marazzato
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Microbiology Section, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Ammendolia
- National Center of Innovative Technologies in Public Health, National Institute of Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Elena Zanni
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Marta Ricci
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Microbiology Section, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella Comanducci
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Microbiology Section, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Goldoni
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Microbiology Section, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Pia Conte
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Microbiology Section, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniela Uccelletti
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Catia Longhi
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Microbiology Section, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
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Lee K, Pletcher SD, Lynch SV, Goldberg AN, Cope EK. Heterogeneity of Microbiota Dysbiosis in Chronic Rhinosinusitis: Potential Clinical Implications and Microbial Community Mechanisms Contributing to Sinonasal Inflammation. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:168. [PMID: 29876323 PMCID: PMC5974464 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies leveraging next-generation sequencing and functional approaches to understand the human microbiota have demonstrated the presence of diverse, niche-specific microbial communities at nearly every mucosal surface. These microbes contribute to the development and function of physiologic and immunological features that are key to host health status. Not surprisingly, several chronic inflammatory diseases have been attributed to dysbiosis of microbiota composition or function, including chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS). CRS is a heterogeneous disease characterized by inflammation of the sinonasal cavity and mucosal microbiota dysbiosis. Inflammatory phenotypes and bacterial community compositions vary considerably across individuals with CRS, complicating current studies that seek to address causality of a dysbiotic microbiome as a driver or initiator of persistent sinonasal inflammation. Murine models have provided some experimental evidence that alterations in local microbial communities and microbially-produced metabolites influence health status. In this perspective, we will discuss the clinical implications of distinct microbial compositions and community-level functions in CRS and how mucosal microbiota relate to the diverse inflammatory endotypes that are frequently observed. We will also describe specific microbial interactions that can deterministically shape the pattern of co-colonizers and the resulting metabolic products that drive or exacerbate host inflammation. These findings are discussed in the context of CRS-associated inflammation and in other chronic inflammatory diseases that share features observed in CRS. An improved understanding of CRS patient stratification offers the opportunity to personalize therapeutic regimens and to design novel treatments aimed at manipulation of the disease-associated microbiota to restore sinus health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keehoon Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | - Steven D Pletcher
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Susan V Lynch
- Division of Medicine, Department of Gastroenterology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Andrew N Goldberg
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Emily K Cope
- Department of Biological Sciences, Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
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Kim HY, Go J, Lee KM, Oh YT, Yoon SS. Guanosine tetra- and pentaphosphate increase antibiotic tolerance by reducing reactive oxygen species production in Vibrio cholerae. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:5679-5694. [PMID: 29475943 PMCID: PMC5900777 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra117.000383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The pathogen Vibrio cholerae is the causative agent of cholera. Emergence of antibiotic-resistant V. cholerae strains is increasing, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Herein, we report that the stringent response regulator and stress alarmone guanosine tetra- and pentaphosphate ((p)ppGpp) significantly contributes to antibiotic tolerance in V. cholerae We found that N16961, a pandemic V. cholerae strain, and its isogenic (p)ppGpp-overexpressing mutant ΔrelAΔspoT are both more antibiotic-resistant than (p)ppGpp0 (ΔrelAΔrelVΔspoT) and ΔdksA mutants, which cannot produce or utilize (p)ppGpp, respectively. We also found that additional disruption of the aconitase B-encoding and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle gene acnB in the (p)ppGpp0 mutant increases its antibiotic tolerance. Moreover, expression of TCA cycle genes, including acnB, was increased in (p)ppGpp0, but not in the antibiotic-resistant ΔrelAΔspoT mutant, suggesting that (p)ppGpp suppresses TCA cycle activity, thereby entailing antibiotic resistance. Importantly, when grown anaerobically or incubated with an iron chelator, the (p)ppGpp0 mutant became antibiotic-tolerant, suggesting that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in antibiotic-mediated bacterial killing. Consistent with that hypothesis, tetracycline treatment markedly increased ROS production in the antibiotic-susceptible mutants. Interestingly, expression of the Fe(III) ABC transporter substrate-binding protein FbpA was increased 10-fold in (p)ppGpp0, and fbpA gene deletion restored viability of tetracycline-exposed (p)ppGpp0 cells. Of note, FbpA expression was repressed in the (p)ppGpp-accumulating mutant, resulting in a reduction of intracellular free iron, required for the ROS-generating Fenton reaction. Our results indicate that (p)ppGpp-mediated suppression of central metabolism and iron uptake reduces antibiotic-induced oxidative stress in V. cholerae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hwa Young Kim
- From the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, and ,the Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea and
| | - Junhyeok Go
- From the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, and ,the Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea and
| | - Kang-Mu Lee
- From the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, and ,the Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea and
| | - Young Taek Oh
- From the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, and ,the Freshwater Bioresources Utilization Division, Nakdonggang National Institute of Biological Resources, SangJu 37242, Korea, To whom correspondence may be addressed:
Freshwater Bioresources Utilization Division, Nakdonggang National Institute of Biological Resources, SangJu-si 37242, Korea. Tel.:
82-54-530-0932; Fax:
82-54-530-0949; E-mail:
| | - Sang Sun Yoon
- From the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, and ,the Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea and , To whom correspondence may be addressed:
Dept. of Microbiology and Immunology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 250 Seongsanno, Seodaemun-gu Seoul 120-752, Korea. Tel.:
82-2-2228-1824; Fax:
82-2-392-7088; E-mail:
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Abstract
The intestinal microbiota is a complex ecosystem consisting of various microorganisms that expands human genetic repertoire and therefore affects human health and disease. The metabolic processes and signal transduction pathways of the host and intestinal microorganisms are intimately linked, and abnormal progression of each process leads to changes in the intestinal environment. Alterations in microbial communities lead to changes in functional structures based on the metabolites produced in the gut, and these environmental changes result in various bacterial infections and chronic enteric inflammatory diseases. Here, we illustrate how antibiotics are associated with an increased risk of antibiotic-associated diseases by driving intestinal environment changes that favor the proliferation and virulence of pathogens. Understanding the pathogenesis caused by antibiotics would be a crucial key to the treatment of antibiotic-associated diseases by mitigating changes in the intestinal environment and restoring it to its original state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi Young Yoon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brain Korea 21 Project for Medical Sciences, Seoul, Korea
- Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang Sun Yoon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Brain Korea 21 Project for Medical Sciences, Seoul, Korea
- Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.
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Oh SH, Kang HY. Identification of target risk groups for population-based Clostridium difficile infection prevention strategies using a population attributable risk approach. Int J Infect Dis 2017; 66:107-112. [PMID: 29162405 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2017.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2017] [Revised: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We aimed to determine risk factors associated with Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and assess the contributions of these factors on CDI burden. METHODS We conducted a 1:4 matched case-control study using a national claims dataset. Cases were incident CDI without a history of CDI in the previous 84 days, and were age- and sex-matched with control patients. We ascertained exposure, defined as a history of morbidities and drug use within 90 days. The population attributable risk (PAR) percent for risk factors was estimated using odds ratios (ORs) obtained from the case-control study. RESULTS Overall, the strongest CDI-associated risk factors, which have significant contributions to the CDI burden as well, were the experience of gastroenteritis (OR=5.08, PAR%=17.09%) and use of antibiotics (OR=1.69, PAR%=19.00%), followed by the experiences of female pelvic infection, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, and pneumonia, and use of proton-pump inhibitors (OR=1.52-2.37, PAR%=1.95-2.90). CONCLUSIONS The control of risk factors that had strong association with CDI and affected large proportions of total CDI cases would be beneficial for CDI prevention. We suggest performing CDI testing for symptomatic patients with gastroenteritis and implementing antibiotics stewardship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Hee Oh
- College of Pharmacy, Yonsei Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Yonsei University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Young Kang
- College of Pharmacy, Yonsei Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Yonsei University, Incheon, Republic of Korea.
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Mousa WK, Athar B, Merwin NJ, Magarvey NA. Antibiotics and specialized metabolites from the human microbiota. Nat Prod Rep 2017; 34:1302-1331. [DOI: 10.1039/c7np00021a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Human microbiota associated with each body site produce specialized molecules to kill human pathogens. Advanced bioinformatics tools will help to discover unique microbiome chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walaa K. Mousa
- Departments of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences & Chemistry and Chemical Biology
- M. G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research
- McMaster University
- Hamilton
- Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Bilal Athar
- Departments of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences & Chemistry and Chemical Biology
- M. G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research
- McMaster University
- Hamilton
- Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Nishanth J. Merwin
- Departments of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences & Chemistry and Chemical Biology
- M. G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research
- McMaster University
- Hamilton
- Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Nathan A. Magarvey
- Departments of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences & Chemistry and Chemical Biology
- M. G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research
- McMaster University
- Hamilton
- Canada L8S 4K1
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