Purification and culture of nerve growth factor receptor (p75)-expressing basal forebrain cholinergic neurons

Retrograde Axonal Transport of Neurotrophins in Basal Forebrain Cholinergic Neurons

Axonal transport is key for the survival and function of all neurons. This process is especially important in basal forebrain cholinergic neurons due to their extremely long and diffuse axonal projections. These neurons are critical for learning and memory and degenerate rapidly in age-related neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. The vulnerability of these neurons to age-related neurodegeneration may be partially attributed to their reliance on retrograde axonal transport for neurotrophic support. Unfortunately, little is known about the molecular biology underlying the retrograde transport dynamics of these neurons due to the difficulty associated with their maintenance in vitro. Here, we outline a protocol for culturing primary rodent basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in microfluidic chambers, devices designed specifically for the study of axonal transport in vitro. We outline protocols for labeling neurotrophins and tracking neurotrophin transport in these neurons. Our protocols can also be used to study axonal transport in other types of primary neurons such as cortical and hippocampal neurons.

Central Cholinergic Synapse Formation in Optimized Primary Septal-Hippocampal Co-cultures

Septal innervation of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons to the hippocampus is critical for normal learning and memory and is severely degenerated in Alzheimer's disease. To understand the molecular events underlying physiological cholinergic synaptogenesis and remodeling, as well as pathological loss, we developed an optimized primary septal-hippocampal co-culture system. Hippocampal and septal tissue were harvested from embryonic Sprague-Dawley rat brain and cultured together at varying densities, cell ratios, and in the presence of different growth factors. We identified conditions that produced robust septal-hippocampal synapse formation. We used confocal microscopy with primary antibodies and fluorescent ligands to validate that this system was capable of generating developmentally mature cholinergic synapses. Such synapses were comprised of physiological synaptic partners and mimicked the molecular composition of in vivo counterparts. This co-culture system will facilitate the study of the formation, plasticity, and dysfunction of central mammalian cholinergic synapses.

TrkA-mediated endocytosis of p75-CTF prevents cholinergic neuron death upon γ-secretase inhibition

The findings shed light into the adverse effects of GSIs observed in the Alzheimer’s field and explain, at least in part, the unexpected worsening in cognition observed in the semagacestat Phase 3 trial.

γ-secretase inhibitors (GSI) were developed to reduce the generation of Aβ peptide to find new Alzheimer’s disease treatments. Clinical trials on Alzheimer’s disease patients, however, showed several side effects that worsened the cognitive symptoms of the treated patients. The observed side effects were partially attributed to Notch signaling. However, the effect on other γ-secretase substrates, such as the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) has not been studied in detail. p75NTR is highly expressed in the basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) during all life. Here, we show that GSI treatment induces the oligomerization of p75CTF leading to the cell death of BFCNs, and that this event is dependent on TrkA activity. The oligomerization of p75CTF requires an intact cholesterol recognition sequence (CRAC) and the constitutive binding of TRAF6, which activates the JNK and p38 pathways. Remarkably, TrkA rescues from cell death by a mechanism involving the endocytosis of p75CTF. These results suggest that the inhibition of γ-secretase activity in aged patients, where the expression of TrkA in the BFCNs is already reduced, could accelerate cholinergic dysfunction and promote neurodegeneration.

Upregulation of RIN3 induces endosomal dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

In Alzheimer's Disease (AD), about one-third of the risk genes identified by GWAS encode proteins that function predominantly in the endocytic pathways. Among them, the Ras and Rab Interactor 3(RIN3) is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for the Rab5 small GTPase family and has been implicated to be a risk factor for both late onset AD (LOAD) and sporadic early onset AD (sEOAD). However, how RIN3 is linked to AD pathogenesis is currently undefined.

METHODS

Quantitative PCR and immunoblotting were used to measure the RIN3 expression level in mouse brain tissues and cultured basal forebrain cholinergic neuron (BFCNs). Immunostaining was used to define subcellular localization of RIN3 and to visualize endosomal changes in cultured primary BFCNs and PC12 cells. Recombinant flag-tagged RIN3 protein was purified from HEK293T cells and was used to define RIN3-interactomes by mass spectrometry. RIN3-interacting partners were validated by co-immunoprecipitation, immunofluorescence and yeast two hybrid assays. Live imaging of primary neurons was used to examine axonal transport of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and β-secretase 1 (BACE1). Immunoblotting was used to detect protein expression, processing of APP and phosphorylated forms of Tau.

RESULTS

We have shown that RIN3 mRNA level was significantly increased in the hippocampus and cortex of APP/PS1 mouse brain. Basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) cultured from E18 APP/PS1 mouse embryos also showed increased RIN3 expression accompanied by early endosome enlargement. In addition, via its proline rich domain, RIN3 recruited BIN1(bridging integrator 1) and CD2AP (CD2 associated protein), two other AD risk factors, to early endosomes. Interestingly, overexpression of RIN3 or CD2AP promoted APP cleavage to increase its carboxyl terminal fragments (CTFs) in PC12 cells. Upregulation of RIN3 or the neuronal isoform of BIN1 increased phosphorylated Tau level. Therefore, upregulation of RIN3 expression promoted accumulation of APP CTFs and increased phosphorylated Tau. These effects by RIN3 was rescued by the expression of a dominant negative Rab5 (Rab5^S34N) construct. Our study has thus pointed to that RIN3 acts through Rab5 to impact endosomal trafficking and signaling.

CONCLUSION

RIN3 is significantly upregulated and correlated with endosomal dysfunction in APP/PS1 mouse. Through interacting with BIN1 and CD2AP, increased RIN3 expression alters axonal trafficking and procession of APP. Together with our previous studies, our current work has thus provided important insights into the role of RIN3 in regulating endosomal signaling and trafficking.

Muscarinic M1 receptor partially modulates higher sensitivity to cadmium-induced cell death in primary basal forebrain cholinergic neurons: A cholinesterase variants dependent mechanism

Cadmium is a toxic compound reported to produce cognitive dysfunctions, though the mechanisms involved are unknown. In a previous work we described how cadmium blocks cholinergic transmission and induces greater cell death in primary cholinergic neurons from the basal forebrain. It also induces cell death in SN56 cholinergic neurons from the basal forebrain through M1R blockage, alterations in the expression of AChE variants and GSK-3β, and an increase in Aβ and total and phosphorylated Tau protein levels. It was observed that the silencing or blockage of M1R altered ChAT activity, GSK-3β, AChE splice variants gene expression, and Aβ and Tau protein formation. Furthermore, AChE-S variants were associated with the same actions modulated by M1R. Accordingly, we hypothesized that cholinergic transmission blockage and higher sensitivity to cadmium-induced cell death of primary basal forebrain cholinergic neurons is mediated by M1R blockage, which triggers this effect through alteration of the expression of AChE variants. To prove this hypothesis, we evaluated, in primary culture from the basal forebrain region, whether M1R silencing induces greater cell death in cholinergic neurons than cadmium does, and whether in SN56 cells M1R mediates the mechanisms described so as to play a part in the cadmium induction of cholinergic transmission blockage and cell death in this cell line through alteration of the expression of AChE variants. Our results prove that M1R silencing by cadmium partially mediates the greater cell death observed on basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. Moreover, all previously described mechanisms for blocking cholinergic transmission and inducing cell death on SN56 cells after cadmium exposure are partially mediated by M1R through the alteration of AChE expression. Thus, our results may explain cognitive dysfunctions observed in cadmium toxicity.

Amyloid precursor protein-mediated endocytic pathway disruption induces axonal dysfunction and neurodegeneration

The endosome/lysosome pathway is disrupted early in the course of both Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Down syndrome (DS); however, it is not clear how dysfunction in this pathway influences the development of these diseases. Herein, we explored the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which endosomal dysfunction contributes to the pathogenesis of AD and DS. We determined that full-length amyloid precursor protein (APP) and its β-C-terminal fragment (β-CTF) act though increased activation of Rab5 to cause enlargement of early endosomes and to disrupt retrograde axonal trafficking of nerve growth factor (NGF) signals. The functional impacts of APP and its various products were investigated in PC12 cells, cultured rat basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs), and BFCNs from a mouse model of DS. We found that the full-length wild-type APP (APPWT) and β-CTF both induced endosomal enlargement and disrupted NGF signaling and axonal trafficking. β-CTF alone induced atrophy of BFCNs that was rescued by the dominant-negative Rab5 mutant, Rab5S34N. Moreover, expression of a dominant-negative Rab5 construct markedly reduced APP-induced axonal blockage in Drosophila. Therefore, increased APP and/or β-CTF impact the endocytic pathway to disrupt NGF trafficking and signaling, resulting in trophic deficits in BFCNs. Our data strongly support the emerging concept that dysregulation of Rab5 activity contributes importantly to early pathogenesis of AD and DS.

Intrinsic Cholinergic Neurons in the Hippocampus: Fact or Artifact?

It is generally agreed that hippocampal acetylcholine (ACh) is synthesized and released exclusively from the terminals of the long-axon afferents whose cell bodies reside in the medial septum and diagonal band. The search for intrinsic cholinergic neurons in the hippocampus has a long history; however evidence for the existence of these neurons has been inconsistent, with most investigators failing to detect them using in situ hybridization or immunohistochemical staining of the cholinergic markers, choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) or vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). Advances in the use of bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) transgenic mice expressing a reporter protein under the control of the genomic elements of the Chat gene (Chat-BAC mice) have facilitated studies of cholinergic neurons. Such mice show robust and faithful expression of the reporter proteins in all known cholinergic cell populations. The availability of the Chat-BAC mice re-ignited interest in hippocampal cholinergic interneurons, because a small number of such reporter-expressing cells is frequently observed in the hippocampus of these mice. However, to date, attempts to confirm that these neurons co-express the endogenous cholinergic marker ChAT, or release ACh, have been unsuccessful. Without such confirmatory evidence it is best to conclude that there are no cholinergic neurons in the hippocampus. Similar considerations apply to other BAC transgenic lines, whose utility as a discovery tool for cell populations heretofore not known to express the genes of interest encoded by the BACs, must be validated by methods that detect expression of the endogenous genes.

Isolation and culture of spinal cord motor neurons

Isolated spinal motoneurons are a powerful tool for studying basic mechanisms of neurite growth and survival. Since motoneurons are a minor population of developing spinal cord cells, they need to be purified and enriched to separate them from non-neuronal cells. Therefore, the particular feature of embryonic motoneurons to express the low affinity neurotrophin receptor p75(NTR) is used to separate the motoneurons from other contaminating cells. Two ways are described to isolate embryonic motoneurons: the basic protocol taking advantage of the ability of p75(NTR) to bind lectin, and an alternative method using an antibody against p75(NTR) for a panning procedure. These protocols comprise suggestions for the cultivation of the isolated motoneurons for experiments regarding neural outgrowth and survival as well as instruction for the preparation of proteins of the cells.

Higher sensitivity to cadmium induced cell death of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons: a cholinesterase dependent mechanism

Cadmium is an environmental pollutant, which is a cause of concern because it can be greatly concentrated in the organism causing severe damage to a variety of organs including the nervous system which is one of the most affected. Cadmium has been reported to produce learning and memory dysfunctions and Alzheimer like symptoms, though the mechanism is unknown. On the other hand, cholinergic system in central nervous system (CNS) is implicated on learning and memory regulation, and it has been reported that cadmium can affect cholinergic transmission and it can also induce selective toxicity on cholinergic system at peripheral level, producing cholinergic neurons loss, which may explain cadmium effects on learning and memory processes if produced on central level. The present study is aimed at researching the selective neurotoxicity induced by cadmium on cholinergic system in CNS. For this purpose we evaluated, in basal forebrain region, the cadmium toxic effects on neuronal viability and the cholinergic mechanisms related to it on NS56 cholinergic mourine septal cell line. This study proves that cadmium induces a more pronounced, but not selective, cell death on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) on cholinergic neurons. Moreover, MTT and LDH assays showed a dose dependent decrease of cell viability in NS56 cells. The ACh treatment of SN56 cells did not revert cell viability reduction induced by cadmium, but siRNA transfection against AChE partially reduced it. Our present results provide new understanding of the mechanisms contributing to the harmful effects of cadmium on the function and viability of neurons, and the possible relevance of cadmium in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases.

GABAergic terminals are a source of galanin to modulate cholinergic neuron development in the neonatal forebrain

The distribution and (patho-)physiological role of neuropeptides in the adult and aging brain have been extensively studied. Galanin is an inhibitory neuropeptide that can coexist with γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the adult forebrain. However, galanin's expression sites, mode of signaling, impact on neuronal morphology, and colocalization with amino acid neurotransmitters during brain development are less well understood. Here, we show that galaninergic innervation of cholinergic projection neurons, which preferentially express galanin receptor 2 (GalR2) in the neonatal mouse basal forebrain, develops by birth. Nerve growth factor (NGF), known to modulate cholinergic morphogenesis, increases GalR2 expression. GalR2 antagonism (M871) in neonates reduces the in vivo expression and axonal targeting of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), indispensable for cholinergic neurotransmission. During cholinergic neuritogenesis in vitro, GalR2 can recruit Rho-family GTPases to induce the extension of a VAChT-containing primary neurite, the prospective axon. In doing so, GalR2 signaling dose-dependently modulates directional filopodial growth and antagonizes NGF-induced growth cone differentiation. Galanin accumulates in GABA-containing nerve terminals in the neonatal basal forebrain, suggesting its contribution to activity-driven cholinergic development during the perinatal period. Overall, our data define the cellular specificity and molecular complexity of galanin action in the developing basal forebrain.

Membrane potential measurements of isolated neurons using a voltage-sensitive dye

The ability to monitor changes in membrane potential is a useful tool for studying neuronal function, but there are only limited options available at present. Here, we have investigated the potential of a commercially available FLIPR membrane potential (FMP) dye, developed originally for high throughput screening using a plate reader, for imaging the membrane potential of cultured cells using an epifluorescence-based single cell imaging system. We found that the properties of the FMP dye make it highly suitable for such imaging since 1) its fluorescence displayed a high signal-to-noise ratio, 2) robust signals meant only minimal exposure times of around 5 ms were necessary, and 3) bidirectional changes in fluorescence were detectable resulting from hyper- or depolarising conditions, reaching equilibrium with a time constant of 4–8 s. Measurements were possible independently of whether membrane potential changes were induced by voltage clamping, or manipulating the ionic distribution of either Na⁺ or K⁺. Since FMP behaves as a charged molecule which accumulates in the cytosol, equations based on the Boltzmann distribution were developed determining that the apparent charge of FMP which represents a measure of the voltage sensitivity of the dye, is between −0.62 and −0.72. Finally, we demonstrated that FMP is suitable for use in a variety of neuronal cell types and detects membrane potential changes arising from spontaneous firing of action potentials and through stimulation with a variety of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters.

Skeletal muscle pericyte subtypes differ in their differentiation potential

Neural progenitor cells have been proposed as a therapy for central nervous system disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases and trauma injuries, however their accessibility is a major limitation. We recently isolated Tuj1+ cells from skeletal muscle culture of Nestin-GFP transgenic mice however whether they form functional neurons in the brain is not yet known. Additionally, their isolation from nontransgenic species and identification of their ancestors is unknown. This gap of knowledge precludes us from studying their role as a valuable alternative to neural progenitors. Here, we identified two pericyte subtypes, type-1 and type-2, using a double transgenic Nestin-GFP/NG2-DsRed mouse and demonstrated that Nestin-GFP+/Tuj1+ cells derive from type-2 Nestin-GFP+/NG2-DsRed+/CD146+ pericytes located in the skeletal muscle interstitium. These cells are bipotential as they generate either Tuj1+ cells when cultured with muscle cells or become "classical" α-SMA+pericytes when cultured alone. In contrast, type-1 Nestin-GFP-/NG2-DsRed+/CD146+ pericytes generate α-SMA+pericytes but not Tuj1+ cells. Interestingly, type-2 pericyte derived Tuj1+ cells retain some pericytic markers (CD146+/PDGFRβ+/NG2+). Given the potential application of Nestin-GFP+/NG2-DsRed+/Tuj1+ cells for cell therapy, we found a surface marker, the nerve growth factor receptor, which is expressed exclusively in these cells and can be used to identify and isolate them from mixed cell populations in nontransgenic species for clinical purposes.

In vivo AAV-mediated expression of calbindin-D₂₈k in rat basal forebrain cholinergic neurons

The cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain (BFCNs) in human and non-human primates are rich in the calcium binding protein calbindin-D(28k) (CB). We have shown a selective loss of CB from BFCNs in the course of normal aging, which appears to predispose these neurons to tangle formation and degeneration in Alzheimer's disease. Our previous preliminary investigation demonstrated that rodent BFCNs are devoid of CB. Here we confirm that rat choline acetyltransferase-rich BFCNs are devoid of CB immunoreactivity. We then describe a method for adeno-associated viral vector (AAV) induced expression of CB in rat BFCNs in vivo. We constructed AAV vectors bearing the CB gene under the control of the CMV promoter, or neuron-specific enolase (NSE) promoter, to bias expression in neurons. Both vectors resulted in CB expression in mouse neuronal cultures, and in rat brain following injections. AAV-NSE-CB resulted in more robust expression in neurons. Injections of 10 μl of AAV-NSE-CB in the BFCNs component located within the internal segment of globus pallidus and internal capsule resulted in expression of CB in 84% of BFCNs. Expression was optimum at 14 days. Injections of AAV-NSE-LacZ resulted in robust β-galactosidase expression, but no CB immunoreactivity. Our results show that use of NSE promoter leads to high expression of genes in neurons and that the BFCNs can be targeted for expression of genes that are differentially expressed in the rodent and primate brains. These findings have important implications for gene replacement therapy in human BFCNs.

The controlled generation of functional basal forebrain cholinergic neurons from human embryonic stem cells

An early substantial loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCN) is a constant feature of Alzheimer's disease and is associated with deficits in spatial learning and memory. The ability to selectively control the differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) into BFCN would be a significant step toward a cell replacement therapy. We demonstrate here a method for the derivation of a predominantly pure population of BFCN from hESC cells using diffusible ligands present in the forebrain at developmentally relevant time periods. Overexpression of two relevant human transcription factors in hESC-derived neural progenitors also generates BFCN. These neurons express only those markers characteristic of BFCN, generate action potentials, and form functional cholinergic synapses in murine hippocampal slice cultures. siRNA-mediated knockdown of the transcription factors blocks BFCN generation by the diffusible ligands, clearly demonstrating the factors both necessary and sufficient for the controlled derivation of this neuronal population. The ability to selectively control the differentiation of hESCs into BFCN is a significant step both for understanding mechanisms regulating BFCN lineage commitment and for the development of both cell transplant-mediated therapeutic interventions for Alzheimer's disease and high-throughput screening for agents that promote BFCN survival.

BDNF-, IGF-1- and GDNF-secreting human neural progenitor cells rescue amyloid β-induced toxicity in cultured rat septal neurons

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the depositions of amyloid-β (Aβ) proteins, resulting in a reduction of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity of AD brain in the early stages of the disease. Several growth factors, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 and glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) are known to protect neuronal cell death in several neurodegenerative both in vitro and in vivo models. In this study, septal neurons were prepared from septal nucleus of embryonic (day 16-17) rat brain and treated with monomeric, oligomeric or fibrillar Aβ(1-42) peptide. Oligomeric Aβ(1-42), (10 μM) was the most potent at sublethal dose. Septal neuron cultures treated with BDNF, IGF-1 or GDNF or co-cultured with genetically modified human neural progenitor cells (hNPCs) secreting these neurotrophic factors (but not allowing contact between the two cell types), were protected from oligomeric Aβ(1-42) peptide-induced cell death, and these trophic factors enhanced cholinergic functions by increasing ChAT expression level. These results indicate the potential of employing transplanted hNPCs for treatment of AD.

BMP9 (bone morphogenetic protein 9) induces NGF as an autocrine/paracrine cholinergic trophic factor in developing basal forebrain neurons

Acetylcholine (ACh) synthesis and release from basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCN) innervating the cerebral cortex and hippocampus are essential processes for normal learning, memory and attention. Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) 9 is a cholinergic differentiation factor in the developing septum that increases ACh synthesis and choline acetyltransferase (Chat) gene expression both in vivo and in vitro. We investigated the possible induction of cholinergic trophic factors by BMP9 in murine septal cells. Nerve growth factor (NGF) protein expression and secretion into the medium was increased in cultured embryonic septal cells treated with BMP9, and partially mediated BMP9-induced acetylcholine production and Chat gene expression. BMP9-induced Ngf gene expression was detected in postmitotic cells, required new protein synthesis and was blocked by BMP type I receptor inhibition. Cholinergic neurons were isolated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting based on either transgenic expression of green fluorescent protein driven by the Chat promoter or NGF receptor (p75) immunostaining. Although both noncholinergic and cholinergic neurons in untreated cultures expressed similar low levels of Ngf, increased Ngf gene expression was restricted to Chat-positive neurons in BMP9-treated cultures. Likewise, similar levels of Ngf mRNA were detected in p75-negative and p75-positive septal cells, yet only p75-positive BFCN increased their Ngf gene expression when treated with BMP9, and only these cells expressed the Alk1 BMP receptor. The data suggest an autocrine/paracrine role for NGF in the development and/or maintenance of BFCN and imply that the stimulation of NGF production and release contributes to the cholinergic-supportive properties of BMP9.

p75NTR-dependent, myelin-mediated axonal degeneration regulates neural connectivity in the adult brain

Axonal degeneration is important during development but has not been thought to function in the intact mature nervous system. Here, we provide evidence that degeneration of adult axons occurs in the intact rodent brain through a p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR)- and myelin-dependent mechanism. Specifically, we show that p75NTR-mediated axonal degeneration prevents septal cholinergic axons from aberrantly growing onto myelinated tracts in vivo or on a myelin substrate in culture. Myelin also triggers local degeneration of p75NTR-expressing sympathetic axons that is rescued by increasing TrkA signaling or elevating intracellular cyclic AMP. Myelin-mediated degeneration occurs when neurotrophins bind to p75NTR, and involves p75NTR-dependent sequestration of Rho guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor (Rho-GDI). Moreover, degeneration, but not growth inhibition, requires downstream activation of Rho and caspase-6. These data indicate that p75NTR maintains the specificity of neural connectivity by preventing inappropriate sprouting onto myelinated tracts and provide a physiological explanation for myelin inhibition after neural injury.

Isolation and enrichment of embryonic mouse motoneurons from the lumbar spinal cord of individual mouse embryos

Cultured spinal motoneurons are a valuable tool for studying the basic mechanisms of axon and dendrite growth and also for analyses of pathomechanisms underlying diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). As motoneurons in the developing spinal cord of mice constitute only a minor population of neurons, these cells need to be enriched in order to study them in the absence of contaminating neuronal and non-neuronal cells. Here, we describe a protocol for the isolation and in vitro cultivation of embryonic primary motoneurons from individual mouse embryos. Tissue dissection, cell isolation and a p75(NTR)-antibody-based panning technique, which highly enriches motoneurons within <8 h are described. This protocol is aimed to provide an alternative to the established FACS-based protocols describing p75(NTR)-based enrichments of neurons. This protocol will help in facilitating the research on molecular mechanisms underlying motoneuron development, survival and disease mechanisms.

Isolation and culture of ventral mesencephalic precursor cells and dopaminergic neurons from rodent brains

The ability to isolate ventral midbrain (VM) precursor cells and neurons provides a powerful means to characterize their differentiation properties and to study their potential for restoring dopamine (DA) neurons degenerated in Parkinson's disease (PD). Preparation and maintenance of DA VM in primary culture involves a number of critical steps to yield healthy cells and appropriate data. Here, we offer a detailed description of protocols to consistently prepare VM DA cultures from rat and mouse embryonic fetal-stage midbrain. We also present methods for organotypic culture of midbrain tissue, for differentiation as aggregate cultures, and for adherent culture systems of DA differentiation and maturation, followed by a synopsis of relevant analytical read-out options. Isolation and culture of rodent VM precursor cells and DA neurons can be exploited for studies of DA lineage development, of neuroprotection, and of cell therapeutic approaches in animal models of PD.

Differential modulation of nerve growth factor receptor (p75) and cholinergic gene expression in purified p75-expressing and non-expressing basal forebrain neurons by BMP9

The synthesis of acetylcholine and its release from basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCN) that innervate the cerebral cortex and hippocampus are considered essential processes for normal learning, memory and attention. We have developed a purification and cell culture method of BFCN in order to examine the regulation of their cholinergic phenotype. Cells isolated from the septal region of late embryonic mice were purified by fluorescence-activated cell sorting based on their expression of the nerve growth factor receptor (p75), a surface marker for mature BFCN. Consistent with previous reports, p75-positive (p75+) cells were enriched in choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and the high-affinity choline transporter (ChT), as measured by reverse transcriptase PCR. In culture, these cells maintained their gene expression of p75, ChAT and ChT, while p75-negative (p75-) cells had a low expression of these genes. Incubation of the cells with BMP9 not only increased p75 and ChAT gene expression in p75- cells, but also augmented the expression of these genes in p75+ cells. Conversely, BMP9 decreased ChT gene expression in p75+ cells and had no such effect in p75- cells. Immunostaining confirmed that p75 protein expression was modulated by BMP9 in a similar way as p75 mRNA, and also revealed that only a subset of p75- cells respond to BMP9 in this manner. These data suggest that mature BFCN in culture may express their cholinergic phenotype in the absence of exogenous trophic input, but that BMP9 can further modulate this phenotype. Moreover, BMP9 induces the cholinergic phenotype in a set of basal forebrain non-cholinergic neurons or precursor cells.