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Huang J, Liu F, Liu Z, Tang H, Wu H, Gong Q, Chen J. Immune Checkpoint in Glioblastoma: Promising and Challenging. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:242. [PMID: 28536525 PMCID: PMC5422441 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is a severe malignant brain cancer with poor overall survival. Conventional intervention remains dismal to prevent recurrence and deterioration of GBM cell. Recent years have witnessed exciting breakthroughs in novel immune strategies, especially checkpoint inhibitors, some of which have become adjuvant setting after standard of care in melanoma. Several clinical trials of checkpoint inhibitors are ongoing in glioblastoma and other brain carcinomas. Plus, synergistic combinations of checkpoint inhibitors with conventional therapy strategies—radiotherapy, temozolomide, bevacizumab, and corticosteroids are now being exploited and applied in clinical settings. This review highlights the recent developments of checkpoints in GBM immunotherapy to provide a brief and comprehensive review of current treatment options. Furthermore, we will discuss challenges remained, such as unique immune system of central nervous system (CNS), immune-related toxicities, synergies, and adverse interactions of combination therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Huang
- Department of Psychiatry, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South UniversityChangsha, China.,Mental Health Institute of the Second Xiangya Hospital, Chinese National Clinical Research Center on Mental Disorders (Xiangya), Chinese National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Central South UniversityChangsha, China
| | - Fangkun Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University (CSU)Changsha, China
| | - Zhixiong Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University (CSU)Changsha, China
| | - Hui Tang
- Department of Psychiatry, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South UniversityChangsha, China.,Mental Health Institute of the Second Xiangya Hospital, Chinese National Clinical Research Center on Mental Disorders (Xiangya), Chinese National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Central South UniversityChangsha, China
| | - Haishan Wu
- Department of Psychiatry, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South UniversityChangsha, China.,Mental Health Institute of the Second Xiangya Hospital, Chinese National Clinical Research Center on Mental Disorders (Xiangya), Chinese National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Central South UniversityChangsha, China
| | - Qianni Gong
- Department of Minimally Invasive Surgery, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South UniversityChangsha, China
| | - Jindong Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South UniversityChangsha, China.,Mental Health Institute of the Second Xiangya Hospital, Chinese National Clinical Research Center on Mental Disorders (Xiangya), Chinese National Technology Institute on Mental Disorders, Hunan Key Laboratory of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Central South UniversityChangsha, China
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Mills EL, Kelly B, O'Neill LAJ. Mitochondria are the powerhouses of immunity. Nat Immunol 2017; 18:488-498. [PMID: 28418387 DOI: 10.1038/ni.3704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 657] [Impact Index Per Article: 93.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidence indicates that mitochondria lie at the heart of immunity. Mitochondrial DNA acts as a danger-associated molecular pattern (DAMP), and the mitochondrial outer membrane is a platform for signaling molecules such as MAVS in RIG-I signaling, and for the NLRP3 inflammasome. Mitochondrial biogenesis, fusion and fission have roles in aspects of immune-cell activation. Most important, Krebs cycle intermediates such as succinate, fumarate and citrate engage in processes related to immunity and inflammation, in both innate and adaptive immune cells. These discoveries are revealing mitochondrial targets that could potentially be exploited for therapeutic gain in inflammation and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evanna L Mills
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Beth Kelly
- Department of Immunometabolism, Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Luke A J O'Neill
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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