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Guédon Y, Caraglio Y, Granier C, Lauri PÉ, Muller B. Identifying Developmental Patterns in Structured Plant Phenotyping Data. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2395:199-225. [PMID: 34822155 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1816-5_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Technological breakthroughs concerning both sensors and robotized plant phenotyping platforms have totally renewed the plant phenotyping paradigm in the last two decades. This has impacted both the nature and the throughput of data with the availability of data at high-throughput from the tissular to the whole plant scale. Sensor outputs often take the form of 2D or 3D images or time series of such images from which traits are extracted while organ shapes, shoot or root system architectures can be deduced. Despite this change of paradigm, many phenotyping studies often ignore the structure of the plant and therefore loose the information conveyed by the temporal and spatial patterns emerging from this structure. The developmental patterns of plants often take the form of succession of well-differentiated phases, stages or zones depending on the temporal, spatial or topological indexing of data. This entails the use of hierarchical statistical models for their identification.The objective here is to show potential approaches for analyzing structured plant phenotyping data using state-of-the-art methods combining probabilistic modeling, statistical inference and pattern recognition. This approach is illustrated using five different examples at various scales that combine temporal and topological index parameters, and development and growth variables obtained using prospective or retrospective measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yann Guédon
- AGAP, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro, Montpellier, France
| | - Yves Caraglio
- AMAP, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, CNRS, INRAE, IRD, Montpellier, France.
| | - Christine Granier
- AGAP, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro, Montpellier, France
| | - Pierre-Éric Lauri
- ABSys, Univ Montpellier, CIHEAM-IAMM, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro, Montpellier, France
| | - Bertrand Muller
- LEPSE, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, Institut Agro, Montpellier, France
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2
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Marconi M, Gallemi M, Benkova E, Wabnik K. A coupled mechano-biochemical model for cell polarity guided anisotropic root growth. eLife 2021; 10:72132. [PMID: 34723798 PMCID: PMC8716106 DOI: 10.7554/elife.72132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants develop new organs to adjust their bodies to dynamic changes in the environment. How independent organs achieve anisotropic shapes and polarities is poorly understood. To address this question, we constructed a mechano-biochemical model for Arabidopsis root meristem growth that integrates biologically plausible principles. Computer model simulations demonstrate how differential growth of neighboring tissues results in the initial symmetry-breaking leading to anisotropic root growth. Furthermore, the root growth feeds back on a polar transport network of the growth regulator auxin. Model, predictions are in close agreement with in vivo patterns of anisotropic growth, auxin distribution, and cell polarity, as well as several root phenotypes caused by chemical, mechanical, or genetic perturbations. Our study demonstrates that the combination of tissue mechanics and polar auxin transport organizes anisotropic root growth and cell polarities during organ outgrowth. Therefore, a mobile auxin signal transported through immobile cells drives polarity and growth mechanics to coordinate complex organ development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Marconi
- CBGP Centro de Biotecnologia y Genomica de Plantas UPM-INIA, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Spain
| | - Marcal Gallemi
- Institute of Science and Technology (IST), Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Eva Benkova
- Institute of Science and Technology (IST), Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Krzysztof Wabnik
- CBGP Centro de Biotecnologia y Genomica de Plantas UPM-INIA, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Spain
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3
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Wei J, Qi Y, Li M, Li R, Yan M, Shen H, Tian L, Liu Y, Tian S, Liu L, Zhang Y, Sun H, Bai Z, Zhang K, Li C. Low-cost and efficient confocal imaging method for arabidopsis flower. Dev Biol 2020; 466:73-76. [PMID: 32763233 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2020.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
For an extensive period of time apical meristem (SAM) has been considered as a mysterious organ, due to its small, hidden and dynamic structure. Confocal imaging, combined with fluorescent reporters, enables researchers to unveil the mechanisms underlying cellular activities, such as gene expression, cell division, growth patterns and cell-cell communications. Recently, a series of protocols were developed for confocal imaging of inflorescence meristem (IM) and floral meristem (FM). However, the requirement of high configuration, such as the need of a water-dipping lens without coverslip and the specialized turrets associated with fixed-stage microscopes, impedes the wide adoption of these methods. We exploited an improved object slide and matching method aiming to decrease the configuration requirement. Following this protocol, various dry microscope lenses can be selected with flexibility for building 3D images of IM and FM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiarong Wei
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Yuqing Qi
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Mengna Li
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Ruoxuan Li
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Meng Yan
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Huabei Shen
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Lifeng Tian
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Yanmeng Liu
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Shijun Tian
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Liantao Liu
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Yongjiang Zhang
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Hongchun Sun
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Zhiying Bai
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Ke Zhang
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
| | - Cundong Li
- College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University/State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Baoding, Hebei, 071001, China.
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4
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Tichá M, Illésová P, Hrbáčková M, Basheer J, Novák D, Hlaváčková K, Šamajová O, Niehaus K, Ovečka M, Šamaj J. Tissue culture, genetic transformation, interaction with beneficial microbes, and modern bio-imaging techniques in alfalfa research. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2020; 40:1265-1280. [PMID: 32942912 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2020.1814689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Current research needs to be more focused on agronomical plants to effectively utilize the knowledge obtained from model plant species. Efforts to improve legumes have long employed common breeding tools. Recently, biotechnological approaches facilitated the development of improved legumes with new traits, allowing them to withstand climatic changes and biotic stress. Owing to its multiple uses and profits, alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) has become a prominent forage crop worldwide. This review provides a comprehensive research summary of tissue culture-based genetic transformation methods, which could be exploited for the development of transgenic alfalfa with agronomically desirable traits. Moreover, advanced bio-imaging approaches, including cutting-edge microscopy and phenotyping, are outlined here. Finally, characterization and the employment of beneficial microbes should help to produce biotechnologically improved and sustainable alfalfa cultivars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Tichá
- Department of Cell Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Illésová
- Department of Cell Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslava Hrbáčková
- Department of Cell Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jasim Basheer
- Department of Cell Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Dominik Novák
- Department of Cell Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Hlaváčková
- Department of Cell Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Olga Šamajová
- Department of Cell Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Karsten Niehaus
- Faculty of Biology, Center for Biotechnology - CeBiTec, Universität Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Miroslav Ovečka
- Department of Cell Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jozef Šamaj
- Department of Cell Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
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Lazcano-Ramírez HG, Gómez-Felipe A, Díaz-Ramírez D, Durán-Medina Y, Sánchez-Segura L, de Folter S, Marsch-Martínez N. Non-destructive Plant Morphometric and Color Analyses Using an Optoelectronic 3D Color Microscope. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:1409. [PMID: 30319671 PMCID: PMC6167917 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Gene function discovery in plants, as other plant science quests, is aided by tools that image, document, and measure plant phenotypes. Tools that acquire images of plant organs and tissues at the microscopic level have evolved from qualitative documentation tools, to advanced tools where software-assisted analysis of images extracts quantitative information that allows statistical analyses. They are useful to perform morphometric studies that describe plant physical characteristics and quantify phenotypes, aiding gene function discovery. In parallel, non-destructive, versatile, robust, and user friendly technologies have also been developed for surface topography analysis and quality control in the industrial manufacture sector, such as optoelectronic three-dimensional (3D) color microscopes. These microscopes combine optical lenses, electronic image sensors, motorized stages, graphics engines, and user friendly software to allow the visualization and inspection of objects of diverse sizes and shapes from different angles. This allow the integration of different automatically obtained images along the Z axis of an object, into a single image with a large depth-of-field, or a 3D model in color. In this work, we explored the performance of an optoelectronic microscope to study plant morphological phenotypes and plant surfaces in different model species. Furthermore, as a "proof-of-concept," we included the phenotypic characterization (morphometric analyses at the organ level, color, and cell size measurements) of Arabidopsis mutant leaves. We found that the microscope tested is a suitable, practical, and fast tool to routinely and precisely analyze different plant organs and tissues, producing both high-quality, sharp color images and morphometric and color data in real time. It is fully compatible with live plant tissues (no sample preparation is required) and does not require special conditions, high maintenance, nor complex training. Therefore, though barely reported in plant scientific studies, optoelectronic microscopes should emerge as convenient and useful tools for phenotypic characterization in plant sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo G. Lazcano-Ramírez
- Departamento de Biotecnología y Bioquímica, Unidad Irapuato, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Irapuato, Mexico
| | - Andrea Gómez-Felipe
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada (LANGEBIO), Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - David Díaz-Ramírez
- Departamento de Biotecnología y Bioquímica, Unidad Irapuato, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Irapuato, Mexico
| | - Yolanda Durán-Medina
- Departamento de Biotecnología y Bioquímica, Unidad Irapuato, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Irapuato, Mexico
| | - Lino Sánchez-Segura
- Departamento de Biotecnología y Bioquímica, Unidad Irapuato, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Irapuato, Mexico
- Departamento de Ingeniería Genética, Unidad Irapuato, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Irapuato, Mexico
| | - Stefan de Folter
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada (LANGEBIO), Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Nayelli Marsch-Martínez
- Departamento de Biotecnología y Bioquímica, Unidad Irapuato, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Irapuato, Mexico
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6
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Pařízková B, Pernisová M, Novák O. What Has Been Seen Cannot Be Unseen-Detecting Auxin In Vivo. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18122736. [PMID: 29258197 PMCID: PMC5751337 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18122736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 12/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Auxins mediate various processes that are involved in plant growth and development in response to specific environmental conditions. Its proper spatio-temporal distribution that is driven by polar auxin transport machinery plays a crucial role in the wide range of auxins physiological effects. Numbers of approaches have been developed to either directly or indirectly monitor auxin distribution in vivo in order to elucidate the basis of its precise regulation. Herein, we provide an updated list of valuable techniques used for monitoring auxins in plants, with their utilities and limitations. Because the spatial and temporal resolutions of the presented approaches are different, their combination may provide a comprehensive outcome of auxin distribution in diverse developmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Pařízková
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science of Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic.
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science of Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic.
| | - Markéta Pernisová
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science of Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic.
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics, National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, CZ-62500 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Ondřej Novák
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science of Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic.
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7
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BERTHET BÉATRICE, MAIZEL ALEXIS. Light sheet microscopy and live imaging of plants. J Microsc 2016; 263:158-64. [DOI: 10.1111/jmi.12393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- BÉATRICE BERTHET
- Center for Organismal Studies (COS) University of Heidelberg Heidelberg Germany
| | - ALEXIS MAIZEL
- Center for Organismal Studies (COS) University of Heidelberg Heidelberg Germany
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Reyes-Olalde JI, Marsch-Martínez N, de Folter S. Imaging early stages of the female reproductive structure of Arabidopsis by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Dev Dyn 2015; 244:1286-90. [PMID: 26149964 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Revised: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The gynoecium is the female reproductive structure and probably the most complex plant structure. During its development, different internal tissues and structures are formed. Insights in gene expression or hormone localization patterns are key to understanding gynoecium development from a molecular biology point of view. RESULTS Imaging with a confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) is a widely used strategy; however, visualization of internal developmental expression patterns in the Arabidopsis gynoecium can be technically challenging. Here, we present a detailed protocol that allows the visualization of internal expression patterns at high resolution during gynoecium development. We demonstrate the applicability using a cytokinin response marker (TCS::GFP), an auxin response marker (DR5::VENUS), and a SEPALLATA3 marker (SEP3::SEP3:GFP). CONCLUSIONS The detailed protocol presented here allows the visualization of fluorescence signals in internal structures during Arabidopsis gynoecium development. This protocol may also be adapted for imaging other challenging plant structures or organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Irepan Reyes-Olalde
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad (LANGEBIO), Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Irapuato, Guanajuato, México
| | | | - Stefan de Folter
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad (LANGEBIO), Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Irapuato, Guanajuato, México
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9
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Velasquez SM, Dinneny JR, Estevez JM. Live imaging of root hairs. Methods Mol Biol 2015; 1242:59-66. [PMID: 25408443 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-1902-4_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Root hairs are single cells specialized in the absorption of water and nutrients. Growing root hairs requires intensive cell wall changes to accommodate cell expansion at the apical end by a process known as tip growth. The cell wall of plants is a very rigid structure comprised largely of polysaccharides and hydroxyproline-rich O-glycoproteins. The importance of root hairs stems from their capacity to expand the surface of interaction between the root and the environment, in search for the necessary nutrients and water to allow plant growth. Therefore, it becomes crucial to deepen our knowledge of them, particularly in the light of the applicability in agriculture by allowing the expansion of croplands. Root hair growth is an extremely fast process, reaching growth rates of up to 1 μm/min and it also is a dynamic process; there can be situations in which the final length might not be affected but the growth rate is. Consequently, in this chapter we focus on a method for studying growth dynamics and rates during a time course. This method is versatile allowing for it to be used in other plant organs such as lateral root, hypocotyl, etc., and also in various conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia M Velasquez
- Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE-CONICET), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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10
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Downie HF, Adu MO, Schmidt S, Otten W, Dupuy LX, White PJ, Valentine TA. Challenges and opportunities for quantifying roots and rhizosphere interactions through imaging and image analysis. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2015; 38:1213-32. [PMID: 25211059 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Revised: 08/02/2014] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The morphology of roots and root systems influences the efficiency by which plants acquire nutrients and water, anchor themselves and provide stability to the surrounding soil. Plant genotype and the biotic and abiotic environment significantly influence root morphology, growth and ultimately crop yield. The challenge for researchers interested in phenotyping root systems is, therefore, not just to measure roots and link their phenotype to the plant genotype, but also to understand how the growth of roots is influenced by their environment. This review discusses progress in quantifying root system parameters (e.g. in terms of size, shape and dynamics) using imaging and image analysis technologies and also discusses their potential for providing a better understanding of root:soil interactions. Significant progress has been made in image acquisition techniques, however trade-offs exist between sample throughput, sample size, image resolution and information gained. All of these factors impact on downstream image analysis processes. While there have been significant advances in computation power, limitations still exist in statistical processes involved in image analysis. Utilizing and combining different imaging systems, integrating measurements and image analysis where possible, and amalgamating data will allow researchers to gain a better understanding of root:soil interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- H F Downie
- The SIMBIOS Centre, Abertay University, Dundee, DD1 1HG, UK
- Ecological Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, Dundee, DD2 5DA, UK
| | - M O Adu
- Ecological Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, Dundee, DD2 5DA, UK
- Plant and Crop Sciences Division, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, UK
| | - S Schmidt
- The SIMBIOS Centre, Abertay University, Dundee, DD1 1HG, UK
| | - W Otten
- The SIMBIOS Centre, Abertay University, Dundee, DD1 1HG, UK
| | - L X Dupuy
- Ecological Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, Dundee, DD2 5DA, UK
| | - P J White
- Ecological Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, Dundee, DD2 5DA, UK
- King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - T A Valentine
- Ecological Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, Dundee, DD2 5DA, UK
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11
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Calcium imaging perspectives in plants. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:3842-59. [PMID: 24599077 PMCID: PMC3975371 DOI: 10.3390/ijms15033842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Revised: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The calcium ion (Ca2+) is a versatile intracellular messenger. It provides dynamic regulation of a vast array of gene transcriptions, protein kinases, transcription factors and other complex downstream signaling cascades. For the past six decades, intracellular Ca2+ concentration has been significantly studied and still many studies are under way. Our understanding of Ca2+ signaling and the corresponding physiological phenomenon is growing exponentially. Here we focus on the improvements made in the development of probes used for Ca2+ imaging and expanding the application of Ca2+ imaging in plant science research.
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12
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Tschiersch H, Liebsch G, Borisjuk L, Stangelmayer A, Rolletschek H. An imaging method for oxygen distribution, respiration and photosynthesis at a microscopic level of resolution. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2012; 196:926-936. [PMID: 22985120 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04295.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Biological samples are far from homogeneous, with complex compartmentation being the norm. Major physiological processes such as respiration do not therefore occur in a uniform manner within most tissues, and it is currently not possible to image its gradients in living plant tissues. A compact fluorescence ratiometric-based device is presented here, consisting of an oxygen-sensitive foil and a USB (universal serial bus) microscope. The sensor foil is placed on the sample surface and, based on the localized change in fluorescence signal over time, information about the oxygen consumption (respiration) or evolution (photosynthesis) can be obtained. Using this imaging technique, it was possible to demonstrate the spatial pattern of oxygen production and consumption at a c. 20-μm level of resolution, and their visualization in the rhizosphere, stem and leaf, and within the developing seed. The oxygen mapping highlighted the vascular tissues as the major stem sink for oxygen. In the leaf, the level of spatial resolution was sufficient to visualize the gas exchange in individual stomata. We conclude that the novel sensor set-up can visualize gradients in oxygen-consuming and producing processes, thereby facilitating the study of the spatial dynamics of respiration and photosynthesis in heterogeneous plant tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henning Tschiersch
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Corrensstr. 3, D-06466, Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Gregor Liebsch
- PreSens Precision Sensing GmbH, Josef-Engert-Strasse 11, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ljudmilla Borisjuk
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Corrensstr. 3, D-06466, Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Achim Stangelmayer
- PreSens Precision Sensing GmbH, Josef-Engert-Strasse 11, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Hardy Rolletschek
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Corrensstr. 3, D-06466, Gatersleben, Germany
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Abraham-Shrauner B, Pickard BG. A model for leaf initiation: determination of phyllotaxis by waves in the generative circle. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2011; 6:1755-68. [PMID: 22212121 PMCID: PMC3329350 DOI: 10.4161/psb.6.11.17506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
A biophysical model is proposed for how leaf primordia are positioned on the shoot apical: meristem in both spiral and whorl phyllotaxes. Primordia are initiated by signals that propagate: in the epidermis in both azimuthal directions away from the cotyledons or the most recently: specified primordia. The signals are linear waves as inferred from the spatial periodicity of the: divergence angle and a temporal periodicity. The periods of the waves, which represent actively: transported auxin, are much smaller than the plastochron interval. Where oppositely directed: waves meet at one or more angular positions on the periphery of the generative circle, auxin: concentration builds and as in most models this stimulates local movement of auxin to: underlying cells, where it promotes polarized cell division and expansion. For higher order: spirals the wave model requires asymmetric function of auxin transport; that is, opposite wave: speeds differ. An algorithm for determination of the angular positions of leaves in common leaf: phyllotaxic configurations is proposed. The number of turns in a pattern repeat, number of leaves: per level and per pattern repeat, and divergence angle are related to speed of auxin transport and: radius of the generative circle. The rule for composition of Fibonacci or Lucas numbers: associated with some phyllotaxes is discussed. A subcellular model suggests how the shoot: meristem might specify either symmetric or asymmetric transport of auxin away from the: forming primordia that produce it. Biological tests that could make or break the mathematical: and molecular hypotheses are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Abraham-Shrauner
- Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, and Gladys Levis Allen Laboratory of Plant Sensory Physiology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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14
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Wuyts N, Bengough AG, Roberts TJ, Du C, Bransby MF, McKenna SJ, Valentine TA. Automated motion estimation of root responses to sucrose in two Arabidopsis thaliana genotypes using confocal microscopy. PLANTA 2011; 234:769-784. [PMID: 21630041 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-011-1435-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2010] [Accepted: 05/08/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Root growth is a highly dynamic process influenced by genetic background and environment. This paper reports the development of R scripts that enable root growth kinematic analysis that complements a new motion analysis tool: PlantVis. Root growth of Arabidopsis thaliana expressing a plasma membrane targeted GFP (C24 and Columbia 35S:LTI6b-EGFP) was imaged using time-lapse confocal laser scanning microscopy. Displacement of individual pixels in the time-lapse sequences was estimated automatically by PlantVis, producing dense motion vector fields. R scripts were developed to extract kinematic growth parameters and report displacement to ± 0.1 pixel. In contrast to other currently available tools, Plantvis-R delivered root velocity profiles without interpolation or averaging across the root surface and also estimated the uncertainty associated with tracking each pixel. The PlantVis-R analysis tool has a range of potential applications in root physiology and gene expression studies, including linking motion to specific cell boundaries and analysis of curvature. The potential for quantifying genotype × environment interactions was examined by applying PlantVis-R in a kinematic analysis of root growth of C24 and Columbia, under contrasting carbon supply. Large genotype-dependent effects of sucrose were recorded. C24 exhibited negligible differences in elongation zone length and elongation rate but doubled the density of lateral roots in the presence of sucrose. Columbia, in contrast, increased its elongation zone length and doubled its elongation rate and the density of lateral roots.
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15
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Roeder AHK, Tarr PT, Tobin C, Zhang X, Chickarmane V, Cunha A, Meyerowitz EM. Computational morphodynamics of plants: integrating development over space and time. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2011; 12:265-73. [PMID: 21364682 PMCID: PMC4128830 DOI: 10.1038/nrm3079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The emerging field of computational morphodynamics aims to understand the changes that occur in space and time during development by combining three technical strategies: live imaging to observe development as it happens; image processing and analysis to extract quantitative information; and computational modelling to express and test time-dependent hypotheses. The strength of the field comes from the iterative and combined use of these techniques, which has provided important insights into plant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne H. K. Roeder
- Division of Biology 156-29, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E.
California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, , (626)
395-6895, FAX (626) 449-0756
| | - Paul T. Tarr
- Division of Biology 156-29, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E.
California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, , (626)
395-6895, FAX (626) 449-0756
| | - Cory Tobin
- Division of Biology 156-29, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E.
California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, , (626) 395-4936,
FAX (626) 449-0756
| | - Xiaolan Zhang
- Division of Biology 156-29, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E.
California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, , (626)
395-8438, FAX (626) 449-0756
| | - Vijay Chickarmane
- Division of Biology 156-29, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E.
California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, , (626)
395-6895, FAX (626) 449-0756
| | - Alexandre Cunha
- Center for Advanced Computing Research MC 158-79, California Institute of
Technology, 1200 E. California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125,
, (626) 395-8031
| | - Elliot M. Meyerowitz
- Division of Biology 156-29, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E.
California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, , (626)
395-6889, FAX (626) 449-0756
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16
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Sinha NR. Plant developmental biology in the post-genomic era. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2011; 2:11. [PMID: 22629258 PMCID: PMC3355547 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2011.00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2011] [Accepted: 04/14/2011] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Neelima Roy Sinha
- Department of Plant Biology, University of California DavisDavis, CA, USA
- *Correspondence:
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17
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Yadav RK, Tavakkoli M, Reddy GV. WUSCHEL mediates stem cell homeostasis by regulating stem cell number and patterns of cell division and differentiation of stem cell progenitors. Development 2010; 137:3581-9. [DOI: 10.1242/dev.054973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Plant stem cell populations, unlike their animal counterparts, do not use cell migration and oriented cell divisions to maintain their size, and therefore require a precise coordination between self-renewing divisions of stem cells, and rates of cell division and differentiation among stem cell progenitors. Shoot apical meristems (SAMs) of higher plants harbor a set of stem cells within the central zone (CZ) that divide infrequently. Stem cell daughters that are displaced towards the surrounding peripheral zone (PZ) divide at a faster rate and enter into differentiation at specific locations to form leaves or flowers. The relative ratios of cells in the CZ and the PZ are maintained, despite a constant displacement of cells from the CZ into the PZ, and subsequent allocation of cells within the PZ to form organ primordia. The mechanisms that mediate this homeostatic balance are not well understood. A homeodomain transcription factor WUSCHEL, expressed in the rib meristem (RM), located beneath the CZ, has been shown to provide nonautonomous cues for stem cell specification. By employing transient spatial manipulation and live imaging, we show that an elevated level of WUS not only induces expansion of the CZ, but also results in increased cell division rates in cells of the PZ; conversely, decreases in WUS level lead to a smaller CZ and are associated with a reduction in cell division rate. Moreover, low levels of WUS lead to enlarged organ primordia, by elevating the responsiveness of the PZ cells to the plant hormone auxin. This reveals a function of WUS in mediating the balance between differentiating and non-differentiating cells of the PZ. Regulation of stem cell numbers, growth and differentiation patterns by a single transcription factor forms a interconnected and self-correcting feedback loop to provide robustness to stem cell homeostasis in a dynamic cellular environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ram Kishor Yadav
- 2150 Batchelor Hall, Center for Plant Cell Biology (CEPCEB), Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Montreh Tavakkoli
- 2150 Batchelor Hall, Center for Plant Cell Biology (CEPCEB), Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - G. Venugopala Reddy
- 2150 Batchelor Hall, Center for Plant Cell Biology (CEPCEB), Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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18
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Sijacic P, Liu Z. Novel insights from live-imaging in shoot meristem development. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2010; 52:393-399. [PMID: 20377701 DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7909.2010.00941.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Microscopic imaging of fluorescent reporters for key meristem regulators in live tissues is emerging as a powerful technique, enabling researchers to observe dynamic spatial and temporal distribution of hormonal and developmental regulators in living cells. Aided by time-lapse microphotography, new types of imaging acquisition and analysis software, and computational modeling, we are gaining significant insights into shoot apical meristem (SAM) behavior and function. This review is focused on summarizing recent advances in the understanding of SAM organization, development, and behavior derived from live-imaging techniques. This includes the revelation of mechanical forces in microtubule-controlled anisotropic growth, the role of the CLV-WUS network in the specification of peripheral zone and central zone cells, the multiple feedback loops involving cytokinin in controlling WUS expression, auxin dynamics in determining the position of new primordia, and, finally, sequence of regulatory events leading to de novo assembly of shoots from callus in culture. Future studies toward formulating "digital SAM" that incorporates multi-dimensional data ranging from images of SAM morphogenesis to a genome-scale expression map of SAM will greatly enhance our ability to understand, predict, and manipulate SAM, containing the stem cells that give rise to all above ground parts of a plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paja Sijacic
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
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19
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Muzzey D, van Oudenaarden A. Quantitative time-lapse fluorescence microscopy in single cells. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2010; 25:301-27. [PMID: 19575655 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.cellbio.042308.113408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The cloning of green fluorescent protein (GFP) 15 years ago revolutionized cell biology by permitting visualization of a wide range of molecular mechanisms within living cells. Though initially used to make largely qualitative assessments of protein levels and localizations, fluorescence microscopy has since evolved to become highly quantitative and high-throughput. Computational image analysis has catalyzed this evolution, enabling rapid and automated processing of large datasets. Here, we review studies that combine time-lapse fluorescence microscopy and automated image analysis to investigate dynamic events at the single-cell level. We highlight examples where single-cell analysis provides unique mechanistic insights into cellular processes that cannot be otherwise resolved in bulk assays. Additionally, we discuss studies where quantitative microscopy facilitates the assembly of detailed 4D lineages in developing organisms. Finally, we describe recent advances in imaging technology, focusing especially on platforms that allow the simultaneous perturbation and quantitative monitoring of biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale Muzzey
- Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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20
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Schornack S, Fuchs R, Huitema E, Rothbauer U, Lipka V, Kamoun S. Protein mislocalization in plant cells using a GFP-binding chromobody. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 60:744-54. [PMID: 19686537 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2009.03982.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
A key challenge in cell biology is to directly link protein localization to function. The green fluorescent protein (GFP)-binding protein, GBP, is a 13-kDa soluble protein derived from a llama heavy chain antibody that binds with high affinity to GFP as well as to some GFP variants such as yellow fluorescent protein (YFP). A GBP fusion to the red fluorescent protein (RFP), a molecule termed a chromobody, was previously used to trace in vivo the localization of various animal antigens. In this study, we extend the use of chromobody technology to plant cells and develop several applications for the in vivo study of GFP-tagged plant proteins. We took advantage of Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transient expression assays (agroinfiltration) and virus expression vectors (agroinfection) to express functional GBP:RFP fusion (chromobody) in the model plant Nicotiana benthamiana. We showed that the chromobody is effective in binding GFP- and YFP-tagged proteins in planta. Most interestingly, GBP:RFP can be applied to interfere with the function of GFP fusion protein and to mislocalize (trap) GFP fusions to the plant cytoplasm in order to alter the phenotype mediated by the targeted proteins. Chromobody technology, therefore, represents a new alternative technique for protein interference that can directly link localization of plant proteins to in vivo function.
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21
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Mithöfer A, Mazars C, Maffei ME. Probing Spatio-temporal Intracellular Calcium Variations in Plants. Methods Mol Biol 2009; 479:79-92. [PMID: 19083174 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59745-289-2_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/26/2023]
Abstract
Calcium (Ca(2+)) ions act as intracellular second messengers in many different signalling processes in plant cells and thus contribute to the amplification step of the signalling pathway and the specificity of the adaptative response. Dynamics of calcium described as spatial and temporal changes of the Ca(2+) concentrations either in the cytosol and/or in other compartments of the plant cell are now accepted to generate "calcium signatures", which might be responsible for the initiation of specific downstream events leading to the mounting of an appropriate response. To identify and elucidate the properties of such signatures, highly sensitive and specific methods have been developed and are used to measure and monitor variations in intracellular Ca(2+) concentrations. Two of these methods, namely bio-luminescence and fluorescence in combination with confocal laser scanning microscopy, are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Mithöfer
- Max-Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Department Bioorganic Chemistry, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
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22
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A quantitative and dynamic model for plant stem cell regulation. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3553. [PMID: 18958283 PMCID: PMC2570333 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2008] [Accepted: 10/04/2008] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Plants maintain pools of totipotent stem cells throughout their entire life. These stem cells are embedded within specialized tissues called meristems, which form the growing points of the organism. The shoot apical meristem of the reference plant Arabidopsis thaliana is subdivided into several distinct domains, which execute diverse biological functions, such as tissue organization, cell-proliferation and differentiation. The number of cells required for growth and organ formation changes over the course of a plants life, while the structure of the meristem remains remarkably constant. Thus, regulatory systems must be in place, which allow for an adaptation of cell proliferation within the shoot apical meristem, while maintaining the organization at the tissue level. To advance our understanding of this dynamic tissue behavior, we measured domain sizes as well as cell division rates of the shoot apical meristem under various environmental conditions, which cause adaptations in meristem size. Based on our results we developed a mathematical model to explain the observed changes by a cell pool size dependent regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation, which is able to correctly predict CLV3 and WUS over-expression phenotypes. While the model shows stem cell homeostasis under constant growth conditions, it predicts a variation in stem cell number under changing conditions. Consistent with our experimental data this behavior is correlated with variations in cell proliferation. Therefore, we investigate different signaling mechanisms, which could stabilize stem cell number despite variations in cell proliferation. Our results shed light onto the dynamic constraints of stem cell pool maintenance in the shoot apical meristem of Arabidopsis in different environmental conditions and developmental states.
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23
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Cesari F. Shedding light on plant growth. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2008. [DOI: 10.1038/nrm2349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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24
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Reddy GV. Live-imaging stem-cell homeostasis in the Arabidopsis shoot apex. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2008; 11:88-93. [PMID: 18069047 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2007.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2007] [Revised: 10/28/2007] [Accepted: 10/30/2007] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
A precise spatio-temporal regulation of growth and differentiation is crucial to maintain a stable population of stem cells in the shoot apical meristems (SAMs) of higher plants. The real-time and simultaneous observations of dynamics of cell identity transitions, growth patterns, and signaling machinery involved in cell-cell communication is crucial to gain a mechanistic view of stem-cell homeostasis. In this article, I review recent advances in understanding the regulatory dynamics of stem-cell maintenance in Arabidopsis thaliana and discuss future challenges involved in transforming the static maps of genetic interactions into a dynamic framework representing functional molecular and cellular interactions in living SAMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Venugopala Reddy
- 2150 Batchelor Hall, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, United States.
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25
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Plant Stem Cells: Divide et Impera. Stem Cells 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8274-0_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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