Systematic discovery of pseudomonad genetic factors involved in sensitivity to tailocins

A phage tail-like bacteriocin suppresses competitors in metapopulations of pathogenic bacteria

Bacteria can repurpose their own bacteriophage viruses (phage) to kill competing bacteria. Phage-derived elements are frequently strain specific in their killing activity, although there is limited evidence that this specificity drives bacterial population dynamics. Here, we identified intact phage and their derived elements in a metapopulation of wild plant-associated Pseudomonas genomes. We discovered that the most abundant viral cluster encodes a phage remnant resembling a phage tail called a tailocin, which bacteria have co-opted to kill bacterial competitors. Each pathogenic Pseudomonas strain carries one of a few distinct tailocin variants that target the variable polysaccharides in the outer membrane of co-occurring pathogenic Pseudomonas strains. Analysis of herbarium samples from the past 170 years revealed that the same tailocin and bacterial receptor variants have persisted in Pseudomonas populations. These results suggest that tailocin genetic diversity can be mined to develop targeted "tailocin cocktails" for microbial control.

The expanding universe of contractile injection systems in bacteria

Contractile injection systems (CISs) are phage tail-like machineries found in a wide range of bacteria. They are often deployed by bacteria to translocate effectors into the extracellular space or into target cells. CISs are classified into intracellular type VI secretion systems (T6SSs) and extracellular CIS (eCISs). eCISs are assembled in cytoplasm and released into the extracellular milieu upon cell lysis, while T6SSs are the secretion systems widespread among Gram-negative bacteria and actively translocate effectors into the environment or into the adjacent cell, without lysis of T6SS-producing cells. Recently, several noncanonical CISs that exhibit distinct characteristics have been discovered. This review will provide an overview on these noncanonical CISs and their unique features, as well as new advances in reprogramming CISs for therapeutic protein delivery.

A weaponized phage suppresses competitors in historical and modern metapopulations of pathogenic bacteria

Bacteriophages, the viruses of bacteria, are proposed to drive bacterial population dynamics, yet direct evidence of their impact on natural populations is limited. Here we identified viral sequences in a metapopulation of wild plant-associated Pseudomonas spp. genomes. We discovered that the most abundant viral cluster does not encode an intact phage but instead encodes a tailocin - a phage-derived element that bacteria use to kill competitors for interbacterial warfare. Each pathogenic Pseudomonas sp. strain carries one of a few distinct tailocin variants, which target variable polysaccharides in the outer membrane of co-occurring pathogenic strains. Analysis of historic herbarium samples from the last 170 years revealed that the same tailocin and receptor variants have persisted in the Pseudomonas populations for at least two centuries, suggesting the continued use of a defined set of tailocin haplotypes and receptors. These results indicate that tailocin genetic diversity can be mined to develop targeted "tailocin cocktails" for microbial control.

One-Sentence Summary

Bacterial pathogens in a host-associated metapopulation use a repurposed prophage to kill their competitors.

Marinomonas mediterranea synthesizes an R-type bacteriocin

Prophages integrated into bacterial genomes can become cryptic or defective prophages, which may evolve to provide various traits to bacterial cells. Previous research on Marinomonas mediterranea MMB-1 demonstrated the production of defective particles. In this study, an analysis of the genomes of three different strains (MMB-1, MMB-2, and MMB-3) revealed the presence of a region named MEDPRO1, spanning approximately 52 kb, coding for a defective prophage in strains MMB-1 and MMB-2. This prophage seems to have been lost in strain MMB-3, possibly due to the presence of spacers recognizing this region in an I-F CRISPR array in this strain. However, all three strains produce remarkably similar defective particles. Using strain MMB-1 as a model, mass spectrometry analyses indicated that the structural proteins of the defective particles are encoded by a second defective prophage situated within the MEDPRO2 region, spanning approximately 13 kb. This finding was further validated through the deletion of this second defective prophage. Genomic region analyses and the detection of antimicrobial activity of the defective prophage against other Marinomonas species suggest that it is an R-type bacteriocin. Marinomonas mediterranea synthesizes antimicrobial proteins with lysine oxidase activity, and the synthesis of an R-type bacteriocin constitutes an additional mechanism in microbial competition for the colonization of habitats such as the surface of marine plants.IMPORTANCEThe interactions between bacterial strains inhabiting the same environment determine the final composition of the microbiome. In this study, it is shown that some extracellular defective phage particles previously observed in Marinomonas mediterranea are in fact R-type bacteriocins showing antimicrobial activity against other Marinomonas strains. The operon coding for the R-type bacteriocin has been identified.

Phage Paride can kill dormant, antibiotic-tolerant cells of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by direct lytic replication

Bacteriophages are ubiquitous viral predators that have primarily been studied using fast-growing laboratory cultures of their bacterial hosts. However, microbial life in nature is mostly in a slow- or non-growing, dormant state. Here, we show that diverse phages can infect deep-dormant bacteria and suspend their replication until the host resuscitates ("hibernation"). However, a newly isolated Pseudomonas aeruginosa phage, named Paride, can directly replicate and induce the lysis of deep-dormant hosts. While non-growing bacteria are notoriously tolerant to antibiotic drugs, the combination with Paride enables the carbapenem meropenem to eradicate deep-dormant cultures in vitro and to reduce a resilient bacterial infection of a tissue cage implant in mice. Our work might inspire new treatments for persistent bacterial infections and, more broadly, highlights two viral strategies to infect dormant bacteria (hibernation and direct replication) that will guide future studies on phage-host interactions.

Pantailocins: phage-derived bacteriocins from Pantoea ananatis and Pantoea stewartii subsp. indologenes

IMPORTANCE

Phage-derived bacteriocins (tailocins) are ribosomally synthesized structures produced by bacteria in order to provide advantages against competing strains under natural conditions. Tailocins are highly specific in their target range and have proven to be effective for the prevention and/or treatment of bacterial diseases under clinical and agricultural settings. We describe the discovery and characterization of a new tailocin locus encoded within genomes of Pantoea ananatis and Pantoea stewartii subsp. indologenes, which may enable the development of tailocins as preventative treatments against phytopathogenic infection by these species.

High prevalence of lipopolysaccharide mutants and R2-pyocin susceptible variants in Pseudomonas aeruginosa populations sourced from cystic fibrosis lung infections

IMPORTANCE

Cystic fibrosis (CF) patients often experience chronic, debilitating lung infections caused by antibiotic-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, contributing to antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The genetic and phenotypic diversity of P. aeruginosa populations in CF lungs raises questions about their susceptibility to non-traditional antimicrobials, like bacteriocins. In this study, we focused on R-pyocins, a type of bacteriocin with high potency and a narrow killing spectrum. Our findings indicate that a large number of infectious CF variants are susceptible to R2-pyocins, even within diverse bacterial populations, supporting their potential use as therapeutic agents. The absence of a clear correlation between lipopolysaccharide (LPS) phenotypes and R-pyocin susceptibility suggests that LPS packing density may play a significant role in R-pyocin susceptibility among CF variants. Understanding the relationship between LPS phenotypes and R-pyocin susceptibility is crucial for developing effective treatments for these chronic infections.

Evolutionary and ecological role of extracellular contractile injection systems: from threat to weapon

Contractile injection systems (CISs) are phage tail-related structures that are encoded in many bacterial genomes. These devices encompass the cell-based type VI secretion systems (T6SSs) as well as extracellular CISs (eCISs). The eCISs comprise the R-tailocins produced by various bacterial species as well as related phage tail-like structures such as the antifeeding prophages (Afps) of Serratia entomophila, the Photorhabdus virulence cassettes (PVCs), and the metamorphosis-associated contractile structures (MACs) of Pseudoalteromonas luteoviolacea. These contractile structures are released into the extracellular environment upon suicidal lysis of the producer cell and play important roles in bacterial ecology and evolution. In this review, we specifically portray the eCISs with a focus on the R-tailocins, sketch the history of their discovery and provide insights into their evolution within the bacterial host, their structures and how they are assembled and released. We then highlight ecological and evolutionary roles of eCISs and conceptualize how they can influence and shape bacterial communities. Finally, we point to their potential for biotechnological applications in medicine and agriculture.

Solvent-Producing Clostridia Revisited

The review provides an overview of the current status of the solvent-producing clostridia. The origin and development of industrial clostridial species, as well as the history of the industrial Acetone Butanol Ethanol fermentation process, is reexamined, and the recent resurgence of interest in the production of biobutanol is reviewed. Over 300 fully sequenced genomes for solvent-producing and closely related clostridial species are currently available in public databases. These include 270 genomes sourced from the David Jones culture collection. These genomes were allocated arbitrary DJ codes, and a conversion table to identify the species and strains has now been provided. The expanded genomic database facilitated new comparative genomic and phylogenetic analysis. A synopsis of the common features, molecular taxonomy, and phylogeny of solvent-producing clostridia and the application of comparative phylogenomics are evaluated. A survey and analysis of resident prophages in solvent-producing clostridia are discussed, and the discovery, occurrence, and role of novel R-type tailocins are reported. Prophage genomes with R-type tailocin-like features were detected in all 12 species investigated. The widespread occurrence of tailocins in Gram-negative species is well documented; this survey has indicated that they may also be widespread in clostridia.

High prevalence of lipopolysaccharide mutants and R2-Pyocin susceptible variants in Pseudomonas aeruginosa populations sourced from cystic fibrosis lung infections

Chronic, highly antibiotic-resistant infections in cystic fibrosis (CF) lungs contribute to increasing morbidity and mortality. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a common CF pathogen, exhibits resistance to multiple antibiotics, contributing to antimicrobial resistance (AMR). These bacterial populations display genetic and phenotypic diversity, but it is unclear how this diversity affects susceptibility to bacteriocins. R-pyocins, i.e. bacteriocins produced by P. aeruginosa, are phage tail-like antimicrobials. R-pyocins have potential as antimicrobials, however recent research suggests the diversity of P. aeruginosa variants within CF lung infections leads to varying susceptibility to R-pyocins. This variation may be linked to changes in lipopolysaccharide (LPS), acting as the R-pyocin receptor. Currently, it is unknown how frequently R-pyocin-susceptible strains are in chronic CF lung infection, particularly when considering the heterogeneity within these strains. In this study, we tested R2-pyocin susceptibility of 139 P. aeruginosa variants from 17 sputum samples of seven CF patients and analyzed LPS phenotypes. We found that 83% of sputum samples did not have R2-pyocin-resistant variants, while nearly all samples contained susceptible variants. there was no correlation between LPS phenotype and R2-pyocin susceptibility, though we estimate that about 76% of sputum-derived variants lack an O-specific antigen, 40% lack a common antigen, and 24% have altered LPS cores. The absence of a correlation between LPS phenotype and R-pyocin susceptibility suggests LPS packing density may play a significant role in R-pyocin susceptibility among CF variants. Our research supports the potential of R-pyocins as therapeutic agents, as many infectious CF variants are susceptible to R2-pyocins, even within diverse bacterial populations.

Multiparametric Sensing of Outer Membrane Vesicle-Derived Supported Lipid Bilayers Demonstrates the Specificity of Bacteriophage Interactions

The use of bacteriophages, viruses that specifically infect bacteria, as antibiotics has become an area of great interest in recent years as the effectiveness of conventional antibiotics recedes. The detection of phage interactions with specific bacteria in a rapid and quantitative way is key for identifying phages of interest for novel antimicrobials. Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) derived from Gram-negative bacteria can be used to make supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) and therefore in vitro membrane models that contain naturally occurring components of the bacterial outer membrane. In this study, we employed Escherichia coli OMV derived SLBs and use both fluorescent imaging and mechanical sensing techniques to show their interactions with T4 phage. We also integrate these bilayers with microelectrode arrays (MEAs) functionalized with the conducting polymer PEDOT:PSS and show that the pore forming interactions of the phages with the SLBs can be monitored using electrical impedance spectroscopy. To highlight our ability to detect specific phage interactions, we also generate SLBs using OMVs derived from Citrobacter rodentium, which is resistant to T4 phage infection, and identify their lack of interaction with the phage. The work presented here shows how interactions occurring between the phages and these complex SLB systems can be monitored using a range of experimental techniques. We believe this approach can be used to identify phages that work against bacterial strains of interest, as well as more generally to monitor any pore forming structure (such as defensins) interacting with bacterial outer membranes, and thus aid in the development of next generation antimicrobials.

A lipopolysaccharide-dependent phage infects a pseudomonad phytopathogen and can evolve to evade phage resistance

Bacterial pathogens are major causes of crop diseases, leading to significant production losses. For instance, kiwifruit canker, caused by the phytopathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa), has posed a global challenge to kiwifruit production. Treatment with copper and antibiotics, whilst initially effective, is leading to the rise of bacterial resistance, requiring new biocontrol approaches. Previously, we isolated a group of closely related Psa phages with biocontrol potential, which represent environmentally sustainable antimicrobials. However, their deployment as antimicrobials requires further insight into their properties and infection strategy. Here, we provide an in-depth examination of the genome of ΦPsa374-like phages and show that they use lipopolysaccharides (LPS) as their main receptor. Through proteomics and cryo-electron microscopy of ΦPsa374, we revealed the structural proteome and that this phage possess a T = 9 capsid triangulation, unusual for myoviruses. Furthermore, we show that ΦPsa374 phage resistance arises in planta through mutations in a glycosyltransferase involved in LPS synthesis. Lastly, through in vitro evolution experiments we showed that phage resistance is overcome by mutations in a tail fibre and structural protein of unknown function in ΦPsa374. This study provides new insight into the properties of ΦPsa374-like phages that informs their use as antimicrobials against Psa.

Phage-tail-like bacteriocins as a biomedical platform to counter anti-microbial resistant pathogens

Phage Tail Like bacteriocins (PTLBs) has been an area of interest in the last couple of years owing to their varied application against multi-drug resistant (MDR), anti-microbial resistant (AMR) pathogens and their evolutionary link with the dsDNA virus and bacteriophages. PTLBs are defective phages derived from Myoviridae and Siphoviridae phages, PTLBs are distinguished into R-type (Rigid type) characterized by a non-flexible contractile nanotube resembling Myoviridae phage contractile tails, and F-type (Flexible type) with a flexible non-contractile rod-like structure similar to Siphoviridae phages. In this review, we have discussed the structural association, mechanism, and characterization of PTLBs. Moreover, we have elucidated the symbiotic biological function and application of PTLBs against MDR and XDR pathogens and highlighted the evolutionary role of PTLBs. The difficulties that must be overcome to implement PTLBs clinically are also discussed. It is imperative that these issues be addressed by academics in future studies before being implemented in clinical settings. This article is novel in its way as it will not only provide us with a gateway that acts as a novel strategy for scholars to mitigate and control the uprising issue of AMR pathogens but also promote the development of clinical studies for PTLBs.

Mining of Thousands of Prokaryotic Genomes Reveals High Abundance of Prophages with a Strictly Narrow Host Range

Phages and prophages are one of the principal modulators of microbial populations. However, much of their diversity is still poorly understood. Here, we extracted 33,624 prophages from 13,713 complete prokaryotic genomes to explore the prophage diversity and their relationships with their host. Our results reveal that prophages were present in 75% of the genomes studied. In addition, Enterobacterales were significantly enriched in prophages. We also found that pathogens are a significant reservoir of prophages. Finally, we determined that the prophage relatedness and the range of genomic hosts were delimited by the evolutionary relationships of their hosts. On a broader level, we got insights into the prophage population, identified in thousands of publicly available prokaryotic genomes, by comparing the prophage distribution and relatedness between them and their hosts.

IMPORTANCE Phages and prophages play an essential role in controlling their host populations either by modulating the host abundance or providing them with genes that benefit the host. The constant growth in next-generation sequencing technology has caused the development of powerful computational tools to identify phages and prophages with high precision. Making it possible to explore the prophage populations integrated into host genomes on a large scale. However, it is still a new and under-explored area, and efforts are still required to identify prophage populations to understand their dynamics with their hosts.

Pivotal role of O-antigenic polysaccharide display in the sensitivity against phage tail-like particles in environmental Pseudomonas kin competition

Environmental pseudomonads colonize various niches including insect and plant environments. When invading these environments, bacteria are confronted with the resident microbiota. To oppose with closely related strains, they rely on narrow-spectrum weaponry such as tailocins, i.e., phage tail-like particles. Little is known about the receptors for these tailocins especially among phylogenetically closely related species. Here, we studied the interaction between an R-tailocin from Pseudomonas protegens CHA0 and a targeted kin, Pseudomonas protegens Pf-5. Using genome-wide transposon insertion sequencing, we identified that lipopolysaccharides are involved in the sensitivity of Pf-5 towards the tailocin of CHA0. By generating Pf-5 lipopolysaccharide mutants and exposing them to extracted tailocin, we specified the two O-antigenic polysaccharides (O-PS) targeted by the tailocin. We affirmed the role of these O-PS through competition assays in vitro as well as in insects. Further, we demonstrate that O-PS are double-edge swords that are responsible for the sensitivity of P. protegens towards tailocins and phages produced by their kin, but shield bacteria from the immune system of the insect. Our results shed light on the trade-off that bacteria are confronted with, where specific O-PS decorations can both be of benefit or disadvantage depending on the host environment and its bacterial inhabitants.

To kill or to be killed: pangenome analysis of Escherichia coli strains reveals a tailocin specific for pandemic ST131

BACKGROUND

Escherichia coli (E. coli) has been one of the most studied model organisms in the history of life sciences. Initially thought just to be commensal bacteria, E. coli has shown wide phenotypic diversity including pathogenic isolates with great relevance to public health. Though pangenome analysis has been attempted several times, there is no systematic functional characterization of the E. coli subgroups according to the gene profile.

RESULTS

Systematically scanning for optimal parametrization, we have built the E. coli pangenome from 1324 complete genomes. The pangenome size is estimated to be ~25,000 gene families (GFs). Whereas the core genome diminishes as more genomes are added, the softcore genome (≥95% of strains) is stable with ~3000 GFs regardless of the total number of genomes. Apparently, the softcore genome (with a 92% or 95% generation threshold) can define the genome of a bacterial species listing the critically relevant, evolutionarily most conserved or important classes of GFs. Unsupervised clustering of common E. coli sequence types using the presence/absence GF matrix reveals distinct characteristics of E. coli phylogroups B1, B2, and E. We highlight the bi-lineage nature of B1, the variation of the secretion and of the iron acquisition systems in ST11 (E), and the incorporation of a highly conserved prophage into the genome of ST131 (B2). The tail structure of the prophage is evolutionarily related to R2-pyocin (a tailocin) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. We hypothesize that this molecular machinery is highly likely to play an important role in protecting its own colonies; thus, contributing towards the rapid rise of pandemic E. coli ST131.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has explored the optimized pangenome development in E. coli. We provide complete GF lists and the pangenome matrix as supplementary data for further studies. We identified biological characteristics of different E. coli subtypes, specifically for phylogroups B1, B2, and E. We found an operon-like genome region coding for a tailocin specific for ST131 strains. The latter is a potential killer weapon providing pandemic E. coli ST131 with an advantage in inter-bacterial competition and, suggestively, explains their dominance as human pathogen among E. coli strains.

A Phage Foundry Framework to Systematically Develop Viral Countermeasures to Combat Antibiotic-Resistant Bacterial Pathogens

At its current rate, the rise of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) infections is predicted to paralyze our industries and healthcare facilities while becoming the leading global cause of loss of human life. With limited new antibiotics on the horizon, we need to invest in alternative solutions. Bacteriophages (phages)—viruses targeting bacteria—offer a powerful alternative approach to tackle bacterial infections. Despite recent advances in using phages to treat recalcitrant AMR infections, the field lacks systematic development of phage therapies scalable to different applications. We propose a Phage Foundry framework to establish metrics for phage characterization and to fill the knowledge and technological gaps in phage therapeutics. Coordinated investment in AMR surveillance, sampling, characterization, and data sharing procedures will enable rational exploitation of phages for treatments. A fully realized Phage Foundry will enhance the sharing of knowledge, technology, and viral reagents in an equitable manner and will accelerate the biobased economy.

Genome-Wide Screening and Characterization of Genes Involved in Response to High Dose of Ciprofloxacin in Escherichia coli

The global emergence of antibiotic resistance, especially in Gram-negative bacteria, is an urgent threat to public health. Inevitably, considering its extensive use and misuse, resistance toward ciprofloxacin has increased in almost all clinically relevant bacteria. This study aimed to investigate the transcriptome changes at a high concentration of ciprofloxacin in Escherichia coli. In brief, 1,418 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified, from which 773 genes were upregulated by ciprofloxacin, whereas 651 genes were downregulated. Enriched biological pathways reflected the upregulation of biological processes such as DNA damage and repair system, toxin/antitoxin systems, formaldehyde detoxification system. With kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes pathway analysis, higher expressed DEGs were associated with "LPS biosynthesis," "streptomycin biosynthesis," and "polyketide sugar unit biosynthesis." Lower expressed DEGs were associated with "biosynthesis of amino acids" and "flagellar assembly" pathways. After treatment of ciprofloxacin, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) release was increased by two times, and the gene expression level of LPS synthesis was elevated (p < 0.05) in both reference and clinical strains. Our results demonstrated that transient exposure to high-dose ciprofloxacin is a double-edged sword. Cautions should be taken when administering high-dose antibiotic treatment for infectious diseases.

The genetic basis of phage susceptibility, cross-resistance and host-range in Salmonella

Though bacteriophages (phages) are known to play a crucial role in bacterial fitness and virulence, our knowledge about the genetic basis of their interaction, cross-resistance and host-range is sparse. Here, we employed genome-wide screens in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium to discover host determinants involved in resistance to eleven diverse lytic phages including four new phages isolated from a therapeutic phage cocktail. We uncovered 301 diverse host factors essential in phage infection, many of which are shared between multiple phages demonstrating potential cross-resistance mechanisms. We validate many of these novel findings and uncover the intricate interplay between RpoS, the virulence-associated general stress response sigma factor and RpoN, the nitrogen starvation sigma factor in phage cross-resistance. Finally, the infectivity pattern of eleven phages across a panel of 23 genome sequenced Salmonella strains indicates that additional constraints and interactions beyond the host factors uncovered here define the phage host range.

Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola Uses Distinct Modes of Stationary-Phase Persistence To Survive Bacteriocin and Streptomycin Treatments

Antimicrobial treatment of bacteria often results in a small population of surviving tolerant cells, or persisters, that may contribute to recurrent infection. Antibiotic persisters are metabolically dormant, but the basis of their persistence in the presence of membrane-disrupting biological compounds is less well understood. We previously found that the model plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola 1448A (Pph) exhibits persistence to tailocin, a membrane-disrupting biocontrol compound with potential for sustainable disease control. Here, we compared physiological traits associated with persistence to tailocin and to the antibiotic streptomycin and established that both treatments leave similar frequencies of persisters. Microscopic profiling of treated populations revealed that while tailocin rapidly permeabilizes most cells, streptomycin treatment results in a heterogeneous population in the redox and membrane permeability state. Intact cells were sorted into three fractions according to metabolic activity, as indicated by a redox-sensing reporter dye. Streptomycin persisters were cultured from the fraction associated with the lowest metabolic activity, but tailocin persisters were cultured from a fraction associated with an active metabolic signal. Cells from culturable fractions were able to infect host plants, while the nonculturable fractions were not. Tailocin and streptomycin were effective in eliminating all persisters when applied sequentially, in addition to eliminating cells in other viable states. This study identifies distinct metabolic states associated with antibiotic persistence, tailocin persistence, and loss of virulence and demonstrates that tailocin is highly effective in eliminating dormant cells.IMPORTANCE Populations of genetically identical bacteria encompass heterogeneous physiological states. The small fraction of bacteria that are dormant can help the population survive exposure to antibiotics and other stresses, potentially contributing to recurring infection cycles in animal or plant hosts. Membrane-disrupting biological control treatments are effective in killing dormant bacteria, but these treatments also leave persister-like survivors. The current work demonstrates that in Pph, persisters surviving treatment with membrane-disrupting tailocin proteins have an elevated redox state compared to that of dormant streptomycin persisters. Combination treatment was effective in killing both persister types. Culturable persisters corresponded closely with infectious cells in each treated population, whereas the high-redox and unculturable fractions were not infectious. In linking redox states to heterogeneous phenotypes of tailocin persistence, streptomycin persistence, and infection capability, this work will inform the search for mechanisms and markers for each phenotype.