Ginsenoside 20(S)-Rh2 promotes cellular pharmacokinetics and intracellular antibacterial activity of levofloxacin against Staphylococcus aureus through drug efflux inhibition and subcellular stabilization

Compound Shouwu Jiangzhi Granule regulates triacylglyceride synthesis to alleviate hepatic lipid accumulation

BACKGROUND

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a common chronic liver disease with few therapeutic options currently available. Traditional Chinese medicine has been used for thousands of years and exhibited remarkable advantages against such complicated disease for its "multi-component, multi-target and multi-pathway" characteristics. Compound Shouwu Jiangzhi Granule (CSJG) is a clinical empirical prescription for the treatment of NAFLD, but its pharmacological mechanism remains unknown.

METHODS

The clinical efficacy of CSJG was retrospectively analyzed in NAFLD patients by comparing blood biomarkers levels and liver MR images before and after CSJG treatment. Then, high-fat/high-fructose (HFHF) diet-induced NAFLD mice were used to further confirm CSJG's effect against hepatic lipid accumulation through hepatic lipid determination and histopathological staining of liver samples. Next, the ingredients of CSJG were determined, and network pharmacology analysis was performed to predict potential targets of CSJG, followed by quantitative PCR (qPCR) and western blotting for verification. Then, lipidomics study was carried out to further explore the anti-NAFLD mechanism of CSJG from the perspective of triacylglyceride (TAG) synthesis but not free fatty acid (FFA) synthesis. The enzymes involved in this process were assayed by qPCR and western blotting. The potential interactions between the key enzymes of TAG synthesis and the active ingredients of CSJG were analyzed by molecular docking.

RESULTS

CSJG attenuated blood lipid levels and hepatic fat accumulation in both NAFLD patients and mice. Although network pharmacology analysis revealed the FFA synthesis pathway, CSJG only slightly affected it. Through lipidomics analysis, GSJG was found to significantly block the synthesis of diglycerides (DAGs) and TAGs in the liver, with decreased DGAT2 and increased PLD1 protein expression, which diverted DAGs from the synthesis of TAGs to the production of PEs, PCs and PAs and thus lowed TAGs level. Molecular docking suggested that rhein, luteolin and liquiritigenin from CSJG might be involved in this regulation.

CONCLUSION

Clinical and experimental evidence demonstrated that CSJG is a promising agent for the treatment of NAFLD. CSJG regulated TAGs synthesis to alleviate hepatic lipid accumulation. Rhein, luteolin and liquiritigenin from CSJG might play a role in it.

Exploring the potential of bis(thiazol-5-yl)phenylmethane derivatives as novel candidates against genetically defined multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents an alarming global challenge to public health. Infections caused by multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) pose an emerging global threat. Therefore, it is crucial to develop novel compounds with promising antimicrobial activity against S. aureus especially those with challenging resistance mechanisms and biofilm formation. Series of bis(thiazol-5-yl)phenylmethane derivatives were evaluated against drug-resistant Gram-positive bacteria. The screening revealed an S. aureus-selective mechanism of bis(thiazol-5-yl)phenylmethane derivatives (MIC 2-64 μg/mL), while significantly lower activity was observed with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis (MIC 64 μg/mL) (p<0.05). The most active phenylmethane-based (p-tolyl) derivative, 23a, containing nitro and dimethylamine substituents, and the naphthalene-based derivative, 28b, harboring fluorine and nitro substituents, exhibited strong, near MIC bactericidal activity against S. aureus with genetically defined resistance phenotypes such as MSSA, MRSA, and VRSA and their biofilms. The in silico modeling revealed that most promising compounds 23a and 28b were predicted to bind S. aureus MurC ligase. The 23a and 28b formed bonds with MurC residues at binding site, specifically Ser12 and Arg375, indicating consequential interactions essential for complex stability. The in vitro antimicrobial activity of compound 28b was not affected by the addition of 50% serum. Finally, all tested bis(thiazol-5-yl)phenylmethane derivatives showed favorable cytotoxicity profiles in A549 and THP-1-derived macrophage models. These results demonstrated that bis(thiazol-5-yl)phenylmethane derivatives 23a and 28b could be potentially explored as scaffolds for the development of novel candidates targeting drug-resistant S. aureus. Further studies are also warranted to understand in vivo safety, efficacy, and pharmacological bioavailability of bis(thiazol-5-yl)phenylmethane derivatives.

20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 inhibits angiotensin-2 mediated cardiac remodeling and inflammation associated with suppression of the JNK/AP-1 pathway

BACKGROUND

Enhanced levels of angiotensin-2 (Ang-II) causes hypertensive heart failure (HHF) through non-hemodynamical and hemodynamical alterations. 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 (20(S)-Rh2) is a natural ginseng compound with numerous cardiovascular benefits. This investigation elucidates the influence of 20(S)-Rh2 on Ang-II-induced heart failure and cardiac alterations.

METHODS

Ang-II was administered in C57BL/6 mice for 4 weeks to induce HHF. In the last 2 weeks of treatment, 20(S)-Rh2 was orally administered in mice to assess the potential 20(S)-Rh2 mechanism. Subsequently, RNA sequencing was carried out.

RESULTS

It was indicated that 20(S)-Rh2 suppresses myocardial fibrosis, hypertrophy, and inflammation, thereby inhibiting cardiac disruption in Ang-II-challenged mice without affecting blood pressure. According to the RNA sequencing data, this cardio-protective effect was linked with the (JNK)/AP 1 pathway. 20(S)-Rh2 alleviated heart tissue and cardiomyocytes inflammation by inhibiting the Ang-II-mediated JNK/AP-1 pathway. Within cardiomyocytes, JNK or AP-1 absence abolished the anti-inflammatory effects of 20(S)-Rh2.

CONCLUSION

This study investigation indicated that 20(S)-Rh2 prevents cardiovascular dysfunction induced by Ang-II induced by decreasing JNK-regulated inflammatory responses, providing evidence for its use as an efficient regimen for HHF.

Mucosal Adhesive Chitosan Nanogel Formulations of Antibiotics and Adjuvants (Terpenoids, Flavonoids, etc.) and Their Potential for the Treatment of Infectious Diseases of the Gastrointestinal Tract

Bacterial infections are usually found in the stomach and the first part of the small intestine in association with various pathologies, including ulcers, inflammatory diseases, and sometimes cancer. Treatment options may include combinations of antibiotics with proton pump inhibitors and anti-inflammatory drugs. However, all of them have high systemic exposure and, hence, unfavorable side effects, whereas their exposure in stomach mucus, the predominant location of the bacteria, is limited. Chitosan and nanogels based on chitosan presumably are not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and are known to adhere to the mucus. Therefore, they can serve as a basis for the local delivery of antibacterial drugs, increasing their exposure at the predominant location of therapeutic targets, thus improving the risk/benefit ratio. We have used E. coli ATCC 25922 (as a screening model of pathogenic bacteria) and Lactobacilli (as a model of a normal microbiome) to study the antibacterial activity of antibacterial drugs entrapped in a chitosan nanogel. Classical antibiotics were studied in a monotherapeutic regimen as well as in combination with individual terpenoids and flavonoids as adjuvants. It has been shown that levofloxacin (LF) in combination with zephirol demonstrate synergistic effects against E. coli (cell viability decreased by about 50%) and, surprisingly, a much weaker effect against Lactobacilli. A number of other combinations of antibiotic + adjuvant were also shown to be effective. Using FTIR and UV spectroscopy, it has been confirmed that chitosan nanogels with the drug are well adsorbed on the mucosal model, providing prolonged release at the target location. Using an ABTS assay, the antioxidant properties of flavonoids and other drugs are shown, which are potentially necessary to minimize the harmful effects of toxins and radicals produced by pathogens. In vivo experiments (on sturgeon fish) showed the effective action of antibacterial formulations developed based on LF in chitosan nanogels for up to 11 days. Thus, chitosan nanogels loaded with a combination of drugs and adjuvants can be considered as a new strategy for the treatment of infectious diseases of the gastrointestinal tract.

Herb-drug interactions between Panax notoginseng or its biologically active compounds and therapeutic drugs: A comprehensive pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Herbs, along with the use of herb-drug interactions (HDIs) to combat diseases, are increasing in popularity worldwide. HDIs have two effects: favorable interactions that tend to improve therapeutic outcomes and/or minimize the toxic effects of drugs, and unfavorable interactions aggravating the condition of patients. Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen is a medicinal plant that has long been commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine to reduce swelling, relieve pain, clear blood stasis, and stop bleeding. Numerous studies have demonstrated the existence of intricate pharmacodynamic (PD) and pharmacokinetic (PK) interactions between P. notoginseng and conventional drugs. However, these HDIs have not been systematically summarized.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

To collect the available literature on the combined applications of P. notoginseng and drugs published from 2005 to 2022 and summarize the molecular mechanisms of interactions to circumvent the potential risks of combination therapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This work was conducted by searching PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and CNKI databases. The search terms included "notoginseng", "Sanqi", "drug interaction," "synergy/synergistic", "combination/combine", "enzyme", "CYP", and "transporter".

RESULTS

P. notoginseng and its bioactive ingredients interact synergistically with numerous drugs, including anticancer, antiplatelet, and antimicrobial agents, to surmount drug resistance and side effects. This review elaborates on the molecular mechanisms of the PD processed involved. P. notoginseng shapes the PK processes of the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of other drugs by regulating metabolic enzymes and transporters, mainly cytochrome P450 enzymes and P-glycoprotein. This effect is a red flag for drugs with a narrow therapeutic window. Notably, amphipathic saponins in P. notoginseng act as auxiliary materials in drug delivery systems to enhance drug solubility and absorption and represent a new entry point for studying interactions.

CONCLUSION

This article provides a comprehensive overview of HDIs by analyzing the results of the in vivo and in vitro studies on P. notoginseng and its bioactive components. The knowledge presented here offers a scientific guideline for investigating the clinical importance of combination therapies. Physicians and patients need information on possible interactions between P. notoginseng and other drugs, and this review can help them make scientific predictions regarding the consequences of combination treatments.

Ginsenoside Rg1 in neurological diseases: From bench to bedside

Ginseng has been used in China as a superior medicinal material for thousands of years that can nourish the five internal organs, calm the mind and benefit wisdom. Due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and neuroprotective activities, one of the active components of ginseng, ginsenoside Rg1, has been extensively investigated in the remedy of brain disorders, especially dementia and depression. In this review, we summarized the research progress on the action mechanisms of Rg1 ameliorating depression-like behaviors, including inhibition of hyperfunction of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, regulation of synaptic plasticity and gut flora. Rg1 may alleviate Alzheimer's disease in the early phase, as well as in the middle-late phases through repairing dendrite, axon and microglia- and astrocyte-related inflammations. We also proposed that Rg1 could regulate memory state (the imbalance of working and aversive memory) caused by distinct stimuli. These laboratory studies would further the clinical trials on Rg1. From the prospective of drug development, we discussed the limitations of the present investigations and proposed our ideas to increase permeability and bioavailability of Rg1. Taken together, Rg1 has the potential to treat neuropsychiatric disorders, but a future in-depth investigation of the mechanisms is still required. In addition, drug development will benefit from the clinical trials in one specific neuropsychiatric disorder.

Nanocarriers for the delivery of antibiotics into cells against intracellular bacterial infection

The barrier function of host cells enables intracellular bacteria to evade the lethality of the host immune system and antibiotics, thereby causing chronic and recurrent infections that seriously threaten human health. Currently, the main clinical strategy for the treatment of intracellular bacterial infections involves the use of long-term and high-dose antibiotics. However, insufficient intracellular delivery of antibiotics along with various resistance mechanisms not only weakens the efficacy of current therapies but also causes serious adverse drug reactions, further increasing the disease and economic burden. Improving the delivery efficiency, intracellular accumulation, and action time of antibiotics remains the most economical and effective way to treat intracellular bacterial infections. The rapid development of nanotechnology provides a strategy to efficiently deliver antibiotics against intracellular bacterial infections into cells. In this review, we summarize the types of common intracellular pathogens, the difficulties faced by antibiotics in the treatment of intracellular bacterial infections, and the research progress of several types of representative nanocarriers for the delivery of antibiotics against intracellular bacterial infections that have emerged in recent years. This review is expected to provide a reference for further elucidating the intracellular transport mechanism of nanocarrier-drug complexes, designing safer and more effective nanocarriers and establishing new strategies against intracellular bacterial infection.

Advanced Research in Cellular Pharmacokinetics and its Cutting-edge Technologies

Pharmacokinetics (PK), as a significant part of pharmacology, runs through the overall process of the preclinical and clinical research on drugs and plays a significant role in determining the material basis of efficacy and mechanism research. However, due to the limitations of classical PK, cellular PK was put forward and developed rapidly. Many novel and original technologies have been innovatively applied to cellular PK research, thereby providing powerful technical support. As a novel field of PK research, cellular PK expands the research object and enriches the theoretical framework of PK. It provides a new perspective for elucidating the mechanism of drug action and the dynamic process of drug in the body. Furthermore, it provides a scientific basis and guiding significance for the development of new drugs and clinical rational drug use. Cellular PK can explain the dynamic process of certain drugs (e.g., antineoplastic drugs and antibiotics) and the disposition kinetics characteristics in some specific tissues (e.g., brain and tumor) in a clearer and more accurate manner. It is a beneficial supplement and the perfection of traditional PK. In the future, traditional and cellular PKs will complement each other well and improve into an all-around research system in drug developments. Briefly, this paper reviews the conceptual development of cellular PK and key associated technologies, explores its main functions and applications, and looks forward to the important pioneering significance and promising value for the development of PK.

Mannosylated Polymeric Ligands for Targeted Delivery of Antibacterials and Their Adjuvants to Macrophages for the Enhancement of the Drug Efficiency

Bacterial infections and especially resistant strains of pathogens localized in macrophages and granulomas are intractable diseases that pose a threat to millions of people. In this paper, the theoretical and experimental foundations for solving this problem are proposed due to two key aspects. The first is the use of a three-component polymer system for delivering fluoroquinolones to macrophages due to high-affinity interaction with mannose receptors (CD206). Cytometry assay determined that 95.5% macrophage-like cells were FITC-positive after adding high-affine to CD206 trimannoside conjugate HPCD-PEI1.8-triMan, and 61.7% were FITC-positive after adding medium-affine ligand with linear mannose label HPCD-PEI1.8-Man. The second aspect is the use of adjuvants, which are synergists for antibiotics. Using FTIR and NMR spectroscopy, it was shown that molecular containers, namely mannosylated polyethyleneimines (PEIs) and cyclodextrins (CDs), load moxifloxacin (MF) with dissociation constants of the order of 10⁻⁴–10⁻⁶ M; moreover, due to prolonged release and adsorption on the cell membrane, they enhance the effect of MF. Using CLSM, it was shown that eugenol (EG) increases the penetration of doxorubicin (Dox) into cells by an order of magnitude due to the creation of defects in the bacterial wall and the inhibition of efflux proteins. Fluorescence spectroscopy showed that 0.5% EG penetrates into bacteria and inhibits efflux proteins, which makes it possible to increase the maximum concentration of the antibiotic by 60% and maintain it for several hours until the pathogens are completely neutralized. Regulation of efflux is a possible way to overcome multiple drug resistance of both pathogens and cancer cells.

Therapeutic effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the most common malignant diseases with high morbidity and mortality rates. Ginseng and its major extracts, ginsenosides, have been used in medical fields for thousands of years. In particular, their huge anti-cancer potential has drawn a great deal of attention in recent years. There is a large body of evidence that has shown that ginseng and its extracts could significantly inhibit tumor development and progression by suppressing cell proliferation, tumor growth, invasion and metastasis, inducing tumor cell apoptosis, regulating tumor-associated immune responses, and improving the therapeutic effect of chemotherapy. Notably, different subtypes of ginsenosides, even those extracted from the same ginseng, have exhibited distinct anti-cancer functions through different mechanisms. Over the past few years, a large number of studies have focused on how ginseng or various ginsenosides influence CRC development. Therefore, the roles and the potential of ginseng and ginsenosides in the treatment of CRC are summarized in this review. In addition, the biochemical properties of ginseng and ginsenosides are also briefly described.

Spectroscopy Approach for Highly-Efficient Screening of Lectin-Ligand Interactions in Application for Mannose Receptor and Molecular Containers for Antibacterial Drugs

Rational search of a ligand for a specific receptor is a cornerstone of a typical drug discovery process. However, to make it more “rational” one would appreciate having detailed information on the functional groups involved in ligand-receptor interaction. Typically, the 3D structure of a ligand-receptor complex can be built on the basis of time-consuming X-ray crystallography data. Here, a combination of FTIR and fluorescence methods, together with appropriate processing, yields valuable information about the functional groups of both the ligand and receptor involved in the interaction, with the simplicity of conventional spectrophotometry. We have synthesized the “molecular containers” based on cyclodextrins, polyethyleneimines (PEI) or spermine with mannose-rich side-chains of different molecular architecture (reticulated, star-shaped and branched) with variable parameters to facilitate delivery to alveolar macrophages. We have shown that synthetic mannose-rich conjugates are highly affine to the model mannose receptor ConA: K_d ≈ 10⁻⁵–10⁻⁷ M vs. natural ligand trimannoside (10⁻⁵ M). Further, it was shown that molecular containers effectively load levofloxacin (dissociation constants are 5·10⁻⁴–5·10⁻⁶ M) and the eugenol adjuvant (up to 15–80 drug molecules for each conjugate molecule) by including them in the cyclodextrins cavities, as well as by interacting with polymer chains. Promising formulations of levofloxacin and its enhancer (eugenol) in star-shaped and polymer conjugates of high capacity were obtained. UV spectroscopy demonstrated a doubling of the release time of levofloxacin into the external solution from the complexes with conjugates, and the effective action time (time of 80% release) was increased from 0.5 to 20–70 h. The synergy effect of antibacterial activity of levofloxacin and its adjuvants eugenol and apiol on Escherichia coli was demonstrated: the minimum effective concentration of the antibiotic was approximately halved.