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Zhong Y, Jia B, Xie C, Hu L, Liao Z, Liu W, Zhang Y, Huang G. Adenylate kinase 4 promotes neuronal energy metabolism and mitophagy in early cerebral ischemia via Parkin/PKM2 pathway. Exp Neurol 2024; 377:114798. [PMID: 38670251 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2024.114798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction is closely related to brain injury and neurological dysfunction in ischemic stroke. Adenylate kinase 4 (AK4) plays a critical role in energy metabolism and mitochondrial homeostasis. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, we demonstrated an important role of AK4 in mitochondrial dysfunction in the early cerebral ischemia. Early focal cerebral ischemia induced decrease of AK4 protein expression in ischemic hemispheric brain tissue in mice. Exposure of cultured primary neuron to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) also induced AK4 downregulation. Overexpression of AK4 in neuron using adeno-associated virus (AAV-AK4) in mice promoted neuronal survival reflected by decreased infarction volume and TUNEL staining. AK4 overexpression inhibited mitochondrial decline and downregulation of energy metabolism-associated proteins (p-AMPK and ATP1A3) induced by MCAO. Moreover, AK4 knock-in using lentivirus carried AK4 vector (LV-AK4) induced energy metabolism shift from glycolysis to oxidation in neuron. Using transmission electron microscope and western blot, we revealed that AK4 overexpression promoted mitophagy and mitophagy-associated proteins expression PINK1 and Parkin after MCAO. Mass spectrometry and co-immunoprecipitation revealed an interaction between AK4 and PKM2. Mechanistically, AK4 indirectly decreased PKM2 expression via enhancing its ubiquitination by increasing the interaction between PKM2 and its ubiquitin E3 ligase Parkin, and inhibits Parkin downregulation. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that AK4/ Parkin /PKM axis prevents cerebral ischemia damage via regulation of neuronal energy metabolism model and mitophagy. AK4 was a new target for intervention of early ischemic neuron injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunxue Zhong
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518035, China; Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate Collaborative Training Base of Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Bingbing Jia
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518035, China; Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen 518035, China
| | - Cong Xie
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518035, China
| | - Linghui Hu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518035, China; Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Graduate School of Guangzhou Medical University, Shenzhen 518035, China
| | - Zijun Liao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518035, China
| | - Wenlan Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518035, China.
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518035, China.
| | - Guodong Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518035, China.
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Zhao T, Zhang X, Cui X, Su S, Li L, Chen Y, Wang N, Sun L, Zhao J, Zhang J, Han X, Cao J. Oridonin exerts anticonvulsant profile and neuroprotective activity in epileptic mice by inhibiting NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 134:112247. [PMID: 38759374 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epilepsy is a chronic disabling disease poorly controlled by available antiseizure medications. Oridonin, a bioactive alkaloid with anti-inflammatory properties and neuroprotective effects, can inhibit the increased excitability of neurons caused by glutamate accumulation at the cellular level. However, whether oridonin affects neuronal excitability and whether it has antiepileptic potential has not been reported in animal models or clinical studies. METHOD Pentylenetetrazol was injected into mice to create a model of chronic epilepsy. Seizure severity was assessed using the Racine scale, and the duration and latency of seizures were observed. Abnormal neuronal discharge was detected using electroencephalography, and neuronal excitability was assessed using calcium imaging. Damage to hippocampal neurons was evaluated using Hematoxylin-Eosin and Nissl staining. The expression of the NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome and other pyroptosis-related proteins was determined using western blotting and immunofluorescence. A neuronal pyroptosis model was established using the supernatant of BV2 cells treated with lipopolysaccharide and adenosine triphosphate to stimulate hippocampal neurons. RESULTS Oridonin (1 and 5 mg/kg) reduced neuronal damage, increased the latency of seizures, and shortened the duration of fully kindled seizures in chronic epilepsy model mice. Oridonin decreased abnormal discharge during epileptic episodes and suppressed increased neuronal excitability. In vitro experiments showed that oridonin alleviated pyroptosis in hippocampal HT22 neurons. CONCLUSION Oridonin exerts neuroprotective effects by inhibiting pyroptosis through the NLRP3/caspase-1 pathway in chronic epilepsy model mice. It also reduces pyroptosis in hippocampal neurons in vitro, suggesting its potential as a therapy for epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Zhao
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Xuefei Zhang
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Cui
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Songxue Su
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Lei Li
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Yanan Chen
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Na Wang
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Lei Sun
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Jianyuan Zhao
- Institute for Developmental and Regenerative Cardiovascular Medicine, MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Jiewen Zhang
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China.
| | - Xiong Han
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China.
| | - Jing Cao
- Department of Neurology and Basic Medicine, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China.
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Shi Y, Fang Q, Hu Y, Mi Z, Luo S, Gan Y, Yuan S. Melatonin Ameliorates Post-Stroke Cognitive Impairment in Mice by Inhibiting Excessive Mitophagy. Cells 2024; 13:872. [PMID: 38786094 PMCID: PMC11119717 DOI: 10.3390/cells13100872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Post-stroke cognitive impairment (PSCI) remains the most common consequence of ischemic stroke. In this study, we aimed to investigate the role and mechanisms of melatonin (MT) in improving cognitive dysfunction in stroke mice. We used CoCl2-induced hypoxia-injured SH-SY5Y cells as a cellular model of stroke and photothrombotic-induced ischemic stroke mice as an animal model. We found that the stroke-induced upregulation of mitophagy, apoptosis, and neuronal synaptic plasticity was impaired both in vivo and in vitro. The results of the novel object recognition test and Y-maze showed significant cognitive deficits in the stroke mice, and Nissl staining showed a loss of neurons in the stroke mice. In contrast, MT inhibited excessive mitophagy both in vivo and in vitro and decreased the levels of mitophagy proteins PINK1 and Parkin, and immunofluorescence staining showed reduced co-localization of Tom20 and LC3. A significant inhibition of mitophagy levels could be directly observed under transmission electron microscopy. Furthermore, behavioral experiments and Nissl staining showed that MT ameliorated cognitive deficits and reduced neuronal loss in mice following a stroke. Our results demonstrated that MT inhibits excessive mitophagy and improves PSCI. These findings highlight the potential of MT as a preventive drug for PSCI, offering promising therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Shi
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan Province, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410006, China; (Y.S.); (S.L.)
- Department of Medical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410006, China; (Q.F.); (Y.H.); (Z.M.); (Y.G.)
- Engineering Research Center of Reproduction and Translational Medicine of Hunan Province, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410013, China
| | - Qian Fang
- Department of Medical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410006, China; (Q.F.); (Y.H.); (Z.M.); (Y.G.)
| | - Yue Hu
- Department of Medical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410006, China; (Q.F.); (Y.H.); (Z.M.); (Y.G.)
| | - Zhaoyu Mi
- Department of Medical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410006, China; (Q.F.); (Y.H.); (Z.M.); (Y.G.)
| | - Shuting Luo
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan Province, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410006, China; (Y.S.); (S.L.)
| | - Yaoxue Gan
- Department of Medical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410006, China; (Q.F.); (Y.H.); (Z.M.); (Y.G.)
| | - Shishan Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan Province, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410006, China; (Y.S.); (S.L.)
- Department of Medical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410006, China; (Q.F.); (Y.H.); (Z.M.); (Y.G.)
- Engineering Research Center of Reproduction and Translational Medicine of Hunan Province, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410013, China
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Duan Y, Yao RQ, Ling H, Zheng LY, Fan Q, Li Q, Wang L, Zhou QY, Wu LM, Dai XG, Yao YM. Organellophagy regulates cell death:A potential therapeutic target for inflammatory diseases. J Adv Res 2024:S2090-1232(24)00203-0. [PMID: 38740259 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2024.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dysregulated alterations in organelle structure and function have a significant connection with cell death, as well as the occurrence and development of inflammatory diseases. Maintaining cell viability and inhibiting the release of inflammatory cytokines are essential measures to treat inflammatory diseases. Recently, many studies have showed that autophagy selectively targets dysfunctional organelles, thereby sustaining the functional stability of organelles, alleviating the release of multiple cytokines, and maintaining organismal homeostasis. Organellophagy dysfunction is critically engaged in different kinds of cell death and inflammatory diseases. AIM OF REVIEW We summarized the current knowledge of organellophagy (e.g., mitophagy, reticulophagy, golgiphagy, lysophagy, pexophagy, nucleophagy, and ribophagy) and the underlying mechanisms by which organellophagy regulates cell death. KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW We outlined the potential role of organellophagy in the modulation of cell fate during the inflammatory response to develop an intervention strategy for the organelle quality control in inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Duan
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Chenzhou Hospital (the First People's Hospital of Chenzhou), Southern Medical University, Chenzhou 423000, China; Translational Medicine Research Center, Medical Innovation Research Division and Fourth Medical Center of the Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Ren-Qi Yao
- Translational Medicine Research Center, Medical Innovation Research Division and Fourth Medical Center of the Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China; Department of General Surgery, the First Medical Center of the Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China.
| | - Hua Ling
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Chenzhou Hospital (the First People's Hospital of Chenzhou), Southern Medical University, Chenzhou 423000, China
| | - Li-Yu Zheng
- Translational Medicine Research Center, Medical Innovation Research Division and Fourth Medical Center of the Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Qi Fan
- Translational Medicine Research Center, Medical Innovation Research Division and Fourth Medical Center of the Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Qiong Li
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Chenzhou Hospital (the First People's Hospital of Chenzhou), Southern Medical University, Chenzhou 423000, China
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, the First Medical Center of the Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Qi-Yuan Zhou
- Department of Emergency, the Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050000, China
| | - Le-Min Wu
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Chenzhou Hospital (the First People's Hospital of Chenzhou), Southern Medical University, Chenzhou 423000, China
| | - Xin-Gui Dai
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Chenzhou Hospital (the First People's Hospital of Chenzhou), Southern Medical University, Chenzhou 423000, China.
| | - Yong-Ming Yao
- Translational Medicine Research Center, Medical Innovation Research Division and Fourth Medical Center of the Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China.
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Zhang G, Wang Q, Jiang B, Yao L, Wu W, Zhang X, Wan D, Gu Y. Progress of medicinal plants and their active metabolites in ischemia-reperfusion injury of stroke: a novel therapeutic strategy based on regulation of crosstalk between mitophagy and ferroptosis. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1374445. [PMID: 38650626 PMCID: PMC11033413 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1374445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The death of cells can occur through various pathways, including apoptosis, necroptosis, mitophagy, pyroptosis, endoplasmic reticulum stress, oxidative stress, ferroptosis, cuproptosis, and disulfide-driven necrosis. Increasing evidence suggests that mitophagy and ferroptosis play crucial regulatory roles in the development of stroke. In recent years, the incidence of stroke has been gradually increasing, posing a significant threat to human health. Hemorrhagic stroke accounts for only 15% of all strokes, while ischemic stroke is the predominant type, representing 85% of all stroke cases. Ischemic stroke refers to a clinical syndrome characterized by local ischemic-hypoxic necrosis of brain tissue due to various cerebrovascular disorders, leading to rapid onset of corresponding neurological deficits. Currently, specific therapeutic approaches targeting the pathophysiological mechanisms of ischemic brain tissue injury mainly include intravenous thrombolysis and endovascular intervention. Despite some clinical efficacy, these approaches inevitably lead to ischemia-reperfusion injury. Therefore, exploration of treatment options for ischemic stroke remains a challenging task. In light of this background, advancements in targeted therapy for cerebrovascular diseases through mitophagy and ferroptosis offer a new direction for the treatment of such diseases. In this review, we summarize the progress of mitophagy and ferroptosis in regulating ischemia-reperfusion injury in stroke and emphasize their potential molecular mechanisms in the pathogenesis. Importantly, we systematically elucidate the role of medicinal plants and their active metabolites in targeting mitophagy and ferroptosis in ischemia-reperfusion injury in stroke, providing new insights and perspectives for the clinical development of therapeutic drugs for these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guozhen Zhang
- College of the First Clinical Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
- Department of Neurology, People’s Liberation Army Joint Logistics Support Force 940th Hospital, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Qiang Wang
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Bing Jiang
- Department of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Gansu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Lihe Yao
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Wenjuan Wu
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhang
- Department of Neurology, People’s Liberation Army Joint Logistics Support Force 940th Hospital, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Dongjun Wan
- Department of Neurology, People’s Liberation Army Joint Logistics Support Force 940th Hospital, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Youquan Gu
- College of the First Clinical Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
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Luo B, Ming Z. Uncovering interactions of mitochondrial proteins BNIP3 and BNIP3L with necroptosis-associated kinase RIPK3: Insights into kinase activation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 674:140-146. [PMID: 37419035 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.06.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondria, an important organelle implicated in programmed cell death, assumes a crucial role in necroptosis. However, the regulatory mechanisms through which mitochondria participates in necroptosis are largely unknown. To address this knowledge gap, our study aimed to identify mitochondrial proteins that engage in interactions with receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3), a significant upstream kinase involved in necroptosis. Among the candidates, BNIP3 and BNIP3L exhibited significant higher binding scores to RIPK3 compared to others. Computational modeling revealed specific interactions, as RIPK3 specifically binds to a conserved α-helix region within BNIP3 and BNIP3L. Validation experiments confirmed the significance of these helical peptides for RIPK3 binding. Conserved peptides were also identified in BNIP3 and BNIP3L proteins from various animal species, including humans. The binding between human RIPK3 and BNIP3/BNIP3L peptides demonstrated perfect shape and charge complementation, with highly conserved interface residues. Moreover, peptide binding stabilized an active conformation of RIPK3, potentially enhancing its kinase activity. These findings uncover the interactions between RIPK3 and BNIP3/BNIP3L, providing insights into RIPK3 regulation and its role in necroptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beibei Luo
- Department of Geriatric Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, 530021, Guangxi, China
| | - Zhenhua Ming
- College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, Guangxi, China.
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Zhao N, Gao Y, Jia H, Jiang X. Anti-apoptosis effect of traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Apoptosis 2023; 28:702-729. [PMID: 36892639 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-023-01824-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/10/2023]
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia, one of the leading causes of neurological dysfunction of brain cells, muscle dysfunction, and death, brings great harm and challenges to individual health, families, and society. Blood flow disruption causes decreased glucose and oxygen, insufficient to maintain normal brain tissue metabolism, resulting in intracellular calcium overload, oxidative stress, neurotoxicity of excitatory amino acids, and inflammation, ultimately leading to neuronal cell necrosis, apoptosis, or neurological abnormalities. This paper summarizes the specific mechanism of cell injury that apoptosis triggered by reperfusion after cerebral ischemia, the related proteins involved in apoptosis, and the experimental progress of herbal medicine treatment through searching, analyzing, and summarizing the PubMed and Web Of Science databases, which includes active ingredients of herbal medicine, prescriptions, Chinese patent medicines, and herbal extracts, providing a new target or new strategy for drug treatment, and providing a reference for future experimental directions and using them to develop suitable small molecule drugs for clinical application. With the research of anti-apoptosis as the core, it is important to find highly effective, low toxicity, safe and cheap compounds from natural plants and animals with abundant resources to prevent and treat Cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury (CIR) and solve human suffering. In addition, understanding and summarizing the apoptotic mechanism of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury, the microscopic mechanism of CIR treatment, and the cellular pathways involved will help to develop new drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Zhao
- Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Yuhe Gao
- Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Hongtao Jia
- Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China
| | - Xicheng Jiang
- Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, China.
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