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Liu Y, Wang R, Liu J, Fan M, Ye Z, Hao Y, Xie F, Wang T, Jiang Y, Liu N, Cui X, Lv Q, Yan L. The vacuolar fusion regulated by HOPS complex promotes hyphal initiation and penetration in Candida albicans. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4131. [PMID: 38755250 PMCID: PMC11099166 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48525-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
The transition between yeast and hyphae is crucial for regulating the commensalism and pathogenicity in Candida albicans. The mechanisms that affect the invasion of hyphae in solid media, whose deficiency is more related to the pathogenicity of C. albicans, have not been elucidated. Here, we found that the disruption of VAM6 or VPS41 which are components of the homotypic vacuolar fusion and protein sorting (HOPS) complex, or the Rab GTPase YPT72, all responsible for vacuole fusion, led to defects in hyphal growth in both liquid and solid media, but more pronounced on solid agar. The phenotypes of vac8Δ/Δ and GTR1OE-vam6Δ/Δ mutants indicated that these deficiencies are mainly caused by the reduced mechanical forces that drive agar and organs penetration, and confirmed that large vacuoles are required for hyphal mechanical penetration. In summary, our study revealed that large vacuoles generated by vacuolar fusion support hyphal penetration and provided a perspective to refocus attention on the role of solid agar in evaluating C. albicans invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Liu
- Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, PR China
| | - Ruina Wang
- Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, PR China
| | - Jiacun Liu
- Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, PR China
| | - Mengting Fan
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, PR China
| | - Zi Ye
- Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, PR China
| | - Yumeng Hao
- Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, PR China
| | - Fei Xie
- Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, PR China
| | - Ting Wang
- Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, PR China
| | - Yuanying Jiang
- School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, PR China
| | - Ningning Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Systems Medicine for Cancer, Center for Single-Cell Omics, School of Public Health, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, PR China.
| | - Xiaoyan Cui
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, PR China.
| | - Quanzhen Lv
- Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, PR China.
| | - Lan Yan
- Center for Basic Research and Innovation of Medicine and Pharmacy (MOE), School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, PR China.
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Jin X, Luan X, Xie F, Chang W, Lou H. Erg6 Acts as a Downstream Effector of the Transcription Factor Flo8 To Regulate Biofilm Formation in Candida albicans. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0039323. [PMID: 37098889 PMCID: PMC10269489 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00393-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The yeast-to-hyphal morphotype transition and subsequent biofilm formation are important virulence factors of Candida albicans and are closely associated with ergosterol biosynthesis. Flo8 is an important transcription factor that determines filamentous growth and biofilm formation in C. albicans. However, the relationship between Flo8 and regulation of the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway remains elusive. Here, we analyzed the sterol composition of a flo8-deficient C. albicans strain by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and observed the accumulation of the sterol intermediate zymosterol, the substrate of Erg6 (C-24 sterol methyltransferase). Accordingly, the transcription level of ERG6 was reduced in the flo8-deficient strain. Yeast one-hybrid experiments revealed that Flo8 physically interacted with the ERG6 promoter. Ectopic overexpression of ERG6 in the flo8-deficient strain partially restored biofilm formation and in vivo virulence in a Galleria mellonella infection model. These findings suggest that Erg6 is a downstream effector of the transcription factor Flo8 that mediates the cross talk between sterol synthesis and virulence factors in C. albicans. IMPORTANCE Biofilm formation by C. albicans hinders its eradication by immune cells and antifungal drugs. Flo8 is an important morphogenetic transcription factor that regulates the biofilm formation and in vivo virulence of C. albicans. However, little is known about how Flo8 regulates biofilm formation and fungal pathogenicity. Here, we determined that Flo8 directly binds to the promoter of ERG6 to positively regulate its transcriptional expression. Consistently, loss of flo8 results in the accumulation of the substrate of Erg6. Moreover, ectopic overexpression of ERG6 at least partially restores the biofilm formation and virulence of the flo8-deficient strain both in vitro and in vivo. This work provides a new perspective on the metabolic link between transcription factors and morphotypes in C. albicans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueyang Jin
- Department of Natural Product Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Xiaoyi Luan
- Department of Natural Product Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Fei Xie
- Department of Pharmacy, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Wenqiang Chang
- Department of Natural Product Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Hongxiang Lou
- Department of Natural Product Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
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3
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Zhan L, Tian X, Lin J, Peng X, Zhao G. Glabridin Inhibits Aspergillus fumigatus Growth and Alleviate Inflammation Mediated by Dectin-2 and NLRP3 Inflammasome. Curr Eye Res 2023; 48:348-356. [PMID: 36785524 DOI: 10.1080/02713683.2022.2164779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The research was used to uncover the mechanism of glabridin in Aspergillus fumigatus keratitis in anti-fungus and anti-inflammation. METHODS In vitro, RAW 264.7 cells were infected with A. fumigatus with incubation of glabridin in different concentrations. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT‑qPCR), Western blot, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were used to assess the inflammatory severe and alternation with the intervention of Dectin-2 siRNA and glabridin. In vivo, A. fumigatus keratitis mouse models were established by spore intra-stromal injection and treated with glabridin or PBS. And disease scores, inflammatory mediators, and periodic acid-schiff (PAS) staining were exhibited to demonstrate the therapeutic efficiency of glabridin in vivo. Morphological interference assay monitored fungal germination. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy were used to observe the growth of fungi. RESULTS In RAW 264.7 cells and mouse keratitis models, noncytotoxic 16 μg/mL glabridin showed significant inhibition in the expression of Dectin-2, NLRP3, Caspase-1, IL-1β, and TNF-α after A. fumigatus infection, almost similar to the intervention of Dectin-2 siRNA. PAS staining illustrated the reduced hyphal distribution in cornea stroma with glabridin treatment. Glabridin remarkably inhibited A. fumigatus growth through delaying germination and disrupting the integrity of the hyphae membrane. CONCLUSION Glabridin plays an anti-inflammatory role in A. fumigatus challenge via suppression of the Dectin-2 and NLRP3 inflammasome, and plays an anti-fungal role through delaying germination and changing the hyphal integrity.KEY MESSAGESGlabridin plays an anti-inflammatory role in A. fumigatus infection of RAW264.7 cells in a concentration-dependent manner and through Dectin-2 mediation.Glabridin decreases fungal distribution and inflammation in mouse A. fumigatus keratitis.Glabridin inhibits A. fumigatus growth by delaying germination and disrupting cellular structure in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Zhan
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xue Tian
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Jing Lin
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xudong Peng
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China.,Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Guiqiu Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
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Wang H, Wu H, Li KD, Wang YY, Huang RG, Du YJ, Jin X, Zhang QR, Li XB, Li BZ. Intestinal fungi and systemic autoimmune diseases. Autoimmun Rev 2023; 22:103234. [PMID: 36423833 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2022.103234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Nearly 20 years of studies have shown that fungi and the human immune system (non-specific immunity and specific immunity) and bacterial--fungal interactions maintain a balance that can't lead to diseases. Fungi--microorganism that lives in human intestine--may play an important role in human health and disease. Population studies and animal models in some diseases have found the changes in the diversity and composition of fungi. The dysregulation of the fungi can disrupt the normal "running" of the immune system and bacteria, which triggers the development of inflammatory diseases. The latest studies of fungi in inflammatory bowel disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, ankylosing spondylitis and type 1 diabetes mellitus were summarized. This review considers how the healthy host protect against the potential harm of intestinal fungi through the immune system and how fungal dysregulation alters host immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Hong Wu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Kai-Di Li
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yi-Yu Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Rong-Gui Huang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yu-Jie Du
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xue Jin
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Qian-Ru Zhang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China; Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xian-Bao Li
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Bao-Zhu Li
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China; Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China.
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PD-L1 negatively regulates antifungal immunity by inhibiting neutrophil release from bone marrow. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6857. [PMID: 36369287 PMCID: PMC9652346 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34722-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) has been shown to be inducibly expressed on neutrophils to suppress host immunity during polymicrobial sepsis, virus and parasite infections. However, the role of PD-L1 on neutrophil-mediated antifungal immunity remains wholly unknown. Here, we show that the expression of PD-L1 on murine and human neutrophils was upregulated upon the engagement of C-type lectin receptor Dectin-1 with its ligand β-glucans, exposed on fungal pathogen Candida albicans yeast. Moreover, β-glucan stimulation induced PD-L1 translocation into nucleus to regulate the production of chemokines CXCL1 and CXCL2, which control neutrophil mobilization. Importantly, C. albicans infection-induced expression of PD-L1 leads to neutrophil accumulation in bone marrow, through mediating their autocrine secretion of CXCL1/2. Furthermore, neutrophil-specific deficiency of PD-L1 impaired CXCL1/2 secretion, which promoted neutrophil migration from bone marrow into the peripheral circulation, thereby conferring host resistance to C. albicans infection. Finally, either PD-L1 blockade or pharmacological inhibition of PD-L1 expression significantly increased neutrophil release from bone marrow to enhance host antifungal immunity. Our data together indicate that activation of Dectin-1/PD-L1 cascade by β-glucans inhibits neutrophil release from bone marrow reserve, contributing to the negative regulation of antifungal innate immunity, which functions as a potent immunotherapeutic target against life-threatening fungi infections.
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Gutierrez MW, van Tilburg Bernardes E, Changirwa D, McDonald B, Arrieta MC. "Molding" immunity-modulation of mucosal and systemic immunity by the intestinal mycobiome in health and disease. Mucosal Immunol 2022; 15:573-583. [PMID: 35474360 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-022-00515-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Fungi are important yet understudied contributors to the microbial communities of the gastrointestinal tract. Starting at birth, the intestinal mycobiome undergoes a period of dynamic maturation under the influence of microbial, host, and extrinsic influences, with profound functional implications for immune development in early life, and regulation of immune homeostasis throughout life. Candida albicans serves as a model organism for understanding the cross-talk between fungal colonization dynamics and immunity, and exemplifies unique mechanisms of fungal-immune interactions, including fungal dimorphism, though our understanding of other intestinal fungi is growing. Given the prominent role of the gut mycobiome in promoting immune homeostasis, emerging evidence points to fungal dysbiosis as an influential contributor to immune dysregulation in a variety of inflammatory and infectious diseases. Here we review current knowledge on the factors that govern host-fungi interactions in the intestinal tract and immunological outcomes in both mucosal and systemic compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackenzie W Gutierrez
- Immunology Research Group, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Pediatrics, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,International Microbiome Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Erik van Tilburg Bernardes
- Immunology Research Group, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Pediatrics, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,International Microbiome Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Diana Changirwa
- Immunology Research Group, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,International Microbiome Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Critical Care Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Braedon McDonald
- Immunology Research Group, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,International Microbiome Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Department of Critical Care Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Marie-Claire Arrieta
- Immunology Research Group, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada. .,Department of Pediatrics, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada. .,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada. .,International Microbiome Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
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7
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Voss K, Hong HS, Bader JE, Sugiura A, Lyssiotis CA, Rathmell JC. A guide to interrogating immunometabolism. Nat Rev Immunol 2021; 21:637-652. [PMID: 33859379 PMCID: PMC8478710 DOI: 10.1038/s41577-021-00529-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The metabolic charts memorized in early biochemistry courses, and then later forgotten, have come back to haunt many immunologists with new recognition of the importance of these pathways. Metabolites and the activity of metabolic pathways drive energy production, macromolecule synthesis, intracellular signalling, post-translational modifications and cell survival. Immunologists who identify a metabolic phenotype in their system are often left wondering where to begin and what does it mean? Here, we provide a framework for navigating and selecting the appropriate biochemical techniques to explore immunometabolism. We offer recommendations for initial approaches to develop and test metabolic hypotheses and how to avoid common mistakes. We then discuss how to take things to the next level with metabolomic approaches, such as isotope tracing and genetic approaches. By proposing strategies and evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of different methodologies, we aim to provide insight, note important considerations and discuss ways to avoid common misconceptions. Furthermore, we highlight recent studies demonstrating the power of these metabolic approaches to uncover the role of metabolism in immunology. By following the framework in this Review, neophytes and seasoned investigators alike can venture into the emerging realm of cellular metabolism and immunity with confidence and rigour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey Voss
- Vanderbilt Center for Immunobiology, Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Hanna S Hong
- Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jackie E Bader
- Vanderbilt Center for Immunobiology, Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Ayaka Sugiura
- Vanderbilt Center for Immunobiology, Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Costas A Lyssiotis
- Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jeffrey C Rathmell
- Vanderbilt Center for Immunobiology, Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
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Luo M, Xu L, Qian Z, Sun X. Infection-Associated Thymic Atrophy. Front Immunol 2021; 12:652538. [PMID: 34113341 PMCID: PMC8186317 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.652538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The thymus is a vital organ of the immune system that plays an essential role in thymocyte development and maturation. Thymic atrophy occurs with age (physiological thymic atrophy) or as a result of viral, bacterial, parasitic or fungal infection (pathological thymic atrophy). Thymic atrophy directly results in loss of thymocytes and/or destruction of the thymic architecture, and indirectly leads to a decrease in naïve T cells and limited T cell receptor diversity. Thus, it is important to recognize the causes and mechanisms that induce thymic atrophy. In this review, we highlight current progress in infection-associated pathogenic thymic atrophy and discuss its possible mechanisms. In addition, we discuss whether extracellular vesicles/exosomes could be potential carriers of pathogenic substances to the thymus, and potential drugs for the treatment of thymic atrophy. Having acknowledged that most current research is limited to serological aspects, we look forward to the possibility of extending future work regarding the impact of neural modulation on thymic atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingli Luo
- Department of Parasitology of Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biological Vector Control, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lingxin Xu
- Department of Parasitology of Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biological Vector Control, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhengyu Qian
- Department of Parasitology of Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biological Vector Control, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xi Sun
- Department of Parasitology of Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biological Vector Control, Guangzhou, China
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