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Zhao H, Guo X, Wang W, Wang Z, Rawson P, Wilbur A, Hare M. Consequences of domestication in eastern oyster: Insights from whole genomic analyses. Evol Appl 2024; 17:e13710. [PMID: 38817396 PMCID: PMC11134191 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Selective breeding for production traits has yielded relatively rapid successes with high-fecundity aquaculture species. Discovering the genetic changes associated with selection is an important goal for understanding adaptation and can also facilitate better predictions about the likely fitness of selected strains if they escape aquaculture farms. Here, we hypothesize domestication as a genetic change induced by inadvertent selection in culture. Our premise is that standardized culture protocols generate parallel domestication effects across independent strains. Using eastern oyster as a model and a newly developed 600K SNP array, this study tested for parallel domestication effects in multiple independent selection lines compared with their progenitor wild populations. A single contrast was made between pooled selected strains (1-17 generations in culture) and all wild progenitor samples combined. Population structure analysis indicated rank order levels of differentiation as [wild - wild] < [wild - cultured] < [cultured - cultured]. A genome scan for parallel adaptation to the captive environment applied two methodologically distinct outlier tests to the wild versus selected strain contrast and identified a total of 1174 candidate SNPs. Contrasting wild versus selected strains revealed the early evolutionary consequences of domestication in terms of genomic differentiation, standing genetic diversity, effective population size, relatedness, runs of homozygosity profiles, and genome-wide linkage disequilibrium patterns. Random Forest was used to identify 37 outlier SNPs that had the greatest discriminatory power between bulked wild and selected oysters. The outlier SNPs were in genes enriched for cytoskeletal functions, hinting at possible traits under inadvertent selection during larval culture or pediveliger setting at high density. This study documents rapid genomic changes stemming from hatchery-based cultivation of eastern oysters, identifies candidate loci responding to domestication in parallel among independent aquaculture strains, and provides potentially useful genomic resources for monitoring interbreeding between farm and wild oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Honggang Zhao
- Department of Natural Resources & the EnvironmentCornell UniversityIthacaNew YorkUSA
- Present address:
Center for Aquaculture TechnologySan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Ximing Guo
- Haskin Shellfish Research LaboratoryRutgers UniversityPort NorrisNew JerseyUSA
| | - Wenlu Wang
- Department of Computer SciencesTexas A&M University‐Corpus ChristiCorpus ChristiTexasUSA
| | - Zhenwei Wang
- Haskin Shellfish Research LaboratoryRutgers UniversityPort NorrisNew JerseyUSA
| | - Paul Rawson
- School of Marine SciencesUniversity of MaineOronoMaineUSA
| | - Ami Wilbur
- Shellfish Research Hatchery, Center for Marine ScienceUniversity of North Carolina WilmingtonWilmingtonNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Matthew Hare
- Department of Natural Resources & the EnvironmentCornell UniversityIthacaNew YorkUSA
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Yang Z, Zhao A, Teng M, Li M, Wang H, Wang X, Liu Z, Zeng Q, Hu L, Hu J, Bao Z, Huang X. Signatures of selection in Mulinia lateralis underpinning its rapid adaptation to laboratory conditions. Evol Appl 2024; 17:e13657. [PMID: 38357357 PMCID: PMC10866071 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
The dwarf surf clam, Mulinia lateralis, is considered as a model species for bivalves because of its rapid growth and short generation time. Recently, successful breeding of this species for multiple generations in our laboratory revealed its acquisition of adaptive advantages during artificial breeding. In this study, 310 individuals from five different generations were genotyped with 22,196 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with the aim of uncovering the genetic basis of their adaptation to laboratory conditions. Results revealed that M. lateralis consistently maintained high genetic diversity across generations, characterized by high observed heterozygosity (H o: 0.2733-0.2934) and low levels of inbreeding (F is: -0.0244-0.0261). Population analysis indicated low levels of genetic differentiation among generations of M. lateralis during artificial breeding (F st <0.05). In total, 316 genomic regions exhibited divergent selection, with 168 regions under positive selection. Furthermore, 227 candidate genes were identified in the positive selection regions, which have functions including growth, stress resistance, and reproduction. Notably, certain selection signatures with significantly higher F st value were detected in genes associated with male reproduction, such as GAL3ST1, IFT88, and TSSK2, which were significantly upregulated during artificial breeding. This suggests a potential role of sperm-associated genes in the rapid evolutionary response of M. lateralis to selection in laboratory conditions. Overall, our findings highlight the phenotypic and genetic changes, as well as selection signatures, in M. lateralis during artificial breeding. This contributes to understanding their adaptation to laboratory conditions and underscores the potential for using this species to explore the adaptive evolution of bivalves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zujing Yang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
| | - Ang Zhao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
| | - Mingxuan Teng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
| | - Moli Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
| | - Hao Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
| | - Xuefeng Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
| | - Zhi Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
| | - Qifan Zeng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
- Laboratory of Tropical Marine Germplasm Resources and Breeding EngineeringSanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of ChinaSanyaChina
| | - Liping Hu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
- Yantai Marine Economic Research InstituteYantaiChina
| | - Jingjie Hu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
- Laboratory of Tropical Marine Germplasm Resources and Breeding EngineeringSanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of ChinaSanyaChina
| | - Zhenmin Bao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
- Laboratory of Tropical Marine Germplasm Resources and Breeding EngineeringSanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of ChinaSanyaChina
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and TechnologyQingdaoChina
| | - Xiaoting Huang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Marine Genetics and Breeding, College of Marine Life SciencesOcean University of ChinaQingdaoChina
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and TechnologyQingdaoChina
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3
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Hanley TC, Grabowski JH, Schneider EG, Barrett PD, Puishys LM, Spadafore R, McManus G, Helt WSK, Kinney H, Conor McManus M, Randall Hughes A. Host genetic identity determines parasite community structure across time and space in oyster restoration. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20222560. [PMID: 36987644 PMCID: PMC10050946 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.2560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Intraspecific variation in host susceptibility to individual parasite species is common, yet how these effects scale to mediate the structure of diverse parasite communities in nature is less well understood. To address this knowledge gap, we tested how host genetic identity affects parasite communities on restored reefs seeded with juvenile oysters from different sources-a regional commercial hatchery or one of two wild progenitor lines. We assessed prevalence and intensity of three micro- and two macroparasite species for 4 years following restoration. Despite the spatial proximity of restored reefs, oyster source identity strongly predicted parasite community prevalence across all years, with sources varying in their relative susceptibility to different parasites. Oyster seed source also predicted reef-level parasite intensities across space and through time. Our results highlight that host intraspecific variation can shape parasite community structure in natural systems, and reinforce the importance of considering source identity and diversity in restoration design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torrance C. Hanley
- Marine Science Center, Northeastern University, Nahant, MA 01908, USA
- Massachusetts Bays National Estuary Partnership, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | | | - Eric G. Schneider
- Marine Science Center, Northeastern University, Nahant, MA 01908, USA
- Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management, Division of Marine Fisheries, Jamestown, RI 02835, USA
| | - Patrick D. Barrett
- Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management, Division of Marine Fisheries, Jamestown, RI 02835, USA
| | - Lauren M. Puishys
- Marine Science Center, Northeastern University, Nahant, MA 01908, USA
| | - Rachele Spadafore
- Marine Science Center, Northeastern University, Nahant, MA 01908, USA
| | - Gwendolyn McManus
- Marine Science Center, Northeastern University, Nahant, MA 01908, USA
| | | | - Heather Kinney
- The Nature Conservancy, Rhode Island Chapter, Providence, RI 02906, USA
| | - M. Conor McManus
- Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management, Division of Marine Fisheries, Jamestown, RI 02835, USA
| | - A. Randall Hughes
- Marine Science Center, Northeastern University, Nahant, MA 01908, USA
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4
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Hedgecock D. No evidence for temporally balanced selection on larval Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas: a comment on Durland et al. (2021). Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20212579. [PMID: 35642361 PMCID: PMC9156931 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.2579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Hedgecock
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0371, USA
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Hornick KM, Plough LV. Genome-wide analysis of natural and restored eastern oyster populations reveals local adaptation and positive impacts of planting frequency and broodstock number. Evol Appl 2022; 15:40-59. [PMID: 35126647 PMCID: PMC8792482 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The release of captive-bred plants and animals has increased worldwide to augment declining species. However, insufficient attention has been given to understanding how neutral and adaptive genetic variation are partitioned within and among proximal natural populations, and the patterns and drivers of gene flow over small spatial scales, which can be important for restoration success. A seascape genomics approach was used to investigate population structure, local adaptation, and the extent to which environmental gradients influence genetic variation among natural and restored populations of Chesapeake Bay eastern oysters Crassostrea virginica. We also investigated the impact of hatchery practices on neutral genetic diversity of restored reefs and quantified the broader genetic impacts of large-scale hatchery-based bivalve restoration. Restored reefs showed similar levels of diversity as natural reefs, and striking relationships were found between planting frequency and broodstock numbers and genetic diversity metrics (effective population size and relatedness), suggesting that hatchery practices can have a major impact on diversity. Despite long-term restoration activities, haphazard historical translocations, and high dispersal potential of larvae that could homogenize allele frequencies among populations, moderate neutral population genetic structure was uncovered. Moreover, environmental factors, namely salinity, pH, and temperature, play a major role in the distribution of neutral and adaptive genetic variation. For marine invertebrates in heterogeneous seascapes, collecting broodstock from large populations experiencing similar environments to candidate sites may provide the most appropriate sources for restoration and ensure population resilience in the face of rapid environmental change. This is one of a few studies to demonstrate empirically that hatchery practices have a major impact on the retention of genetic diversity. Overall, these results contribute to the growing body of evidence for fine-scale genetic structure and local adaptation in broadcast-spawning marine species and provide novel information for the management of an important fisheries resource.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine M. Hornick
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental ScienceHorn Point LaboratoryCambridgeMarylandUSA
| | - Louis V. Plough
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental ScienceHorn Point LaboratoryCambridgeMarylandUSA
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6
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Donelan SC, Breitburg D, Ogburn MB. Context-dependent carryover effects of hypoxia and warming in a coastal ecosystem engineer. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2021. [PMID: 33636022 DOI: 10.25573/serc.13341614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Organisms are increasingly likely to be exposed to multiple stressors repeatedly across ontogeny as climate change and other anthropogenic stressors intensify. Early life stages can be particularly sensitive to environmental stress, such that experiences early in life can "carry over" to have long-term effects on organism fitness. Despite the potential importance of these within-generation carryover effects, we have little understanding of how they vary across ecological contexts, particularly when organisms are re-exposed to the same stressors later in life. In coastal marine systems, anthropogenic nutrients and warming water temperatures are reducing average dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations while also increasing the severity of naturally occurring daily fluctuations in DO. Combined effects of warming and diel-cycling DO can strongly affect the fitness and survival of coastal organisms, including the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica), a critical ecosystem engineer and fishery species. However, whether early life exposure to hypoxia and warming affects oysters' subsequent response to these stressors is unknown. Using a multiphase laboratory experiment, we explored how early life exposure to diel-cycling hypoxia and warming affected oyster growth when oysters were exposed to these same stressors 8 weeks later. We found strong, interactive effects of early life exposure to diel-cycling hypoxia and warming on oyster tissue : shell growth, and these effects were context-dependent, only manifesting when oysters were exposed to these stressors again two months later. This change in energy allocation based on early life stress exposure may have important impacts on oyster fitness. Exposure to hypoxia and warming also influenced oyster tissue and shell growth, but only later in life. Our results show that organisms' responses to current stress can be strongly shaped by their previous stress exposure, and that context-dependent carryover effects may influence the fitness, production, and restoration of species of management concern, particularly for sessile species such as oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Donelan
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, 647 Contees Wharf Road, Edgewater, Maryland, 21037, USA
| | - Denise Breitburg
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, 647 Contees Wharf Road, Edgewater, Maryland, 21037, USA
| | - Matthew B Ogburn
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, 647 Contees Wharf Road, Edgewater, Maryland, 21037, USA
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7
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Donelan SC, Breitburg D, Ogburn MB. Context-dependent carryover effects of hypoxia and warming in a coastal ecosystem engineer. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2021; 31:e02315. [PMID: 33636022 PMCID: PMC8243920 DOI: 10.1002/eap.2315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Organisms are increasingly likely to be exposed to multiple stressors repeatedly across ontogeny as climate change and other anthropogenic stressors intensify. Early life stages can be particularly sensitive to environmental stress, such that experiences early in life can "carry over" to have long-term effects on organism fitness. Despite the potential importance of these within-generation carryover effects, we have little understanding of how they vary across ecological contexts, particularly when organisms are re-exposed to the same stressors later in life. In coastal marine systems, anthropogenic nutrients and warming water temperatures are reducing average dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations while also increasing the severity of naturally occurring daily fluctuations in DO. Combined effects of warming and diel-cycling DO can strongly affect the fitness and survival of coastal organisms, including the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica), a critical ecosystem engineer and fishery species. However, whether early life exposure to hypoxia and warming affects oysters' subsequent response to these stressors is unknown. Using a multiphase laboratory experiment, we explored how early life exposure to diel-cycling hypoxia and warming affected oyster growth when oysters were exposed to these same stressors 8 weeks later. We found strong, interactive effects of early life exposure to diel-cycling hypoxia and warming on oyster tissue : shell growth, and these effects were context-dependent, only manifesting when oysters were exposed to these stressors again two months later. This change in energy allocation based on early life stress exposure may have important impacts on oyster fitness. Exposure to hypoxia and warming also influenced oyster tissue and shell growth, but only later in life. Our results show that organisms' responses to current stress can be strongly shaped by their previous stress exposure, and that context-dependent carryover effects may influence the fitness, production, and restoration of species of management concern, particularly for sessile species such as oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. Donelan
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center647 Contees Wharf RoadEdgewaterMaryland21037USA
| | - Denise Breitburg
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center647 Contees Wharf RoadEdgewaterMaryland21037USA
| | - Matthew B. Ogburn
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center647 Contees Wharf RoadEdgewaterMaryland21037USA
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McFarland K, Plough LV, Nguyen M, Hare MP. Are bivalves susceptible to domestication selection? Using starvation tolerance to test for potential trait changes in eastern oyster larvae. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0230222. [PMID: 32603332 PMCID: PMC7326227 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Conservation efforts are increasingly being challenged by a rapidly changing environment, and for some aquatic species the use of captive rearing or selective breeding is an attractive option. However, captivity itself can impose unintended artificial selection known as domestication selection (adaptation to culture conditions) and is relatively understudied for most marine species. To test for domestication selection in marine bivalves, we focused on a fitness-related trait (larval starvation resistance) that could be altered under artificial selection. Using larvae produced from a wild population of Crassostrea virginica and a selectively bred, disease-resistant line we measured growth and survival during starvation versus standard algal diet conditions. Larvae from both lineages showed a remarkable resilience to food limitation, possibly mediated by an ability to utilize dissolved organic matter for somatic maintenance. Water chemistry analysis showed dissolved organic carbon in filtered tank water to be at concentrations similar to natural river water. We observed that survival in larvae produced from the aquaculture line was significantly lower compared to larvae produced from wild broodstock (8 ± 3% and 21 ± 2%, respectively) near the end of a 10-day period with no food (phytoplankton). All larval cohorts had arrested growth and depressed respiration during the starvation period and took at least two days to recover once food was reintroduced before resuming growth. Respiration rate recovered rapidly and final shell length was similar between the two treatments Phenotypic differences between the wild and aquaculture lines suggest potential differences in the capacity to sustain extended food limitation, but this work requires replication with multiple selection lines and wild populations to make more general inferences about domestication selection. With this contribution we explore the potential for domestication selection in bivalves, discuss the physiological and fitness implications of reduced starvation tolerance, and aim to inspire further research on the topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine McFarland
- Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- Center for Environmental Science University of Maryland, Cambridge, Maryland, United States of America
- NOAA Fisheries NEFSC, Milford Laboratory, Milford, CT, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Louis V. Plough
- Center for Environmental Science University of Maryland, Cambridge, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Michelle Nguyen
- Center for Environmental Science University of Maryland, Cambridge, Maryland, United States of America
- College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Matthew P. Hare
- Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
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Houston RD, Bean TP, Macqueen DJ, Gundappa MK, Jin YH, Jenkins TL, Selly SLC, Martin SAM, Stevens JR, Santos EM, Davie A, Robledo D. Harnessing genomics to fast-track genetic improvement in aquaculture. Nat Rev Genet 2020; 21:389-409. [PMID: 32300217 DOI: 10.1038/s41576-020-0227-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Aquaculture is the fastest-growing farmed food sector and will soon become the primary source of fish and shellfish for human diets. In contrast to crop and livestock production, aquaculture production is derived from numerous, exceptionally diverse species that are typically in the early stages of domestication. Genetic improvement of production traits via well-designed, managed breeding programmes has great potential to help meet the rising seafood demand driven by human population growth. Supported by continuous advances in sequencing and bioinformatics, genomics is increasingly being applied across the broad range of aquaculture species and at all stages of the domestication process to optimize selective breeding. In the future, combining genomic selection with biotechnological innovations, such as genome editing and surrogate broodstock technologies, may further expedite genetic improvement in aquaculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross D Houston
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, UK.
| | - Tim P Bean
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, UK
| | - Daniel J Macqueen
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, UK
| | - Manu Kumar Gundappa
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, UK
| | - Ye Hwa Jin
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, UK
| | - Tom L Jenkins
- Sustainable Aquaculture Futures, Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | | | | | - Jamie R Stevens
- Sustainable Aquaculture Futures, Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Eduarda M Santos
- Sustainable Aquaculture Futures, Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Andrew Davie
- Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
| | - Diego Robledo
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, UK
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