Quantification of FRET-induced angular displacement by monitoring sensitized acceptor anisotropy using a dim fluorescent donor

Unified Role of the 145th Residue on the Fluorescence Lifetime of Fluorescent Proteins from the Jellyfish Aequorea victoria

Finding a unified fluorescence mechanism is essential to develop and utilize fluorescent proteins appropriately. Here, we report the unified role of the 145th residue on the fluorescence efficiency of fluorescent proteins developed from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria by demonstrating the difference and similarity between two representative fluorescent proteins, enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP), and enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (eYFP). We determined the fluorescence lifetimes of the 19 different Y145 mutants of eGFP and eYFP by picosecond time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. We found that the effect of the 145th mutation on the fluorescence lifetime is significant for eYFP but moderate for eGFP. We compared known crystal structures to clarify the observed difference between eGFP and eYFP. As a result, we conclude that the efficiency of the steric restriction of the chromophore motion by the 145th side chain is essentially the same for both eGFP and eYFP. Meanwhile, the restriction of the chromophore motion by hydrogen bonds is more pronounced for eGFP than for YFP. Balance of the steric effect and hydrogen bonding controls the lifetime of the Y145 mutants for eGFP and eYFP. Furthermore, the steric restriction is induced by the electrostatic effect; the different 145th residue induces a different electrostatic environment around the chromophore. The finding in this study reasonably explains the reported lifetimes of other fluorescent proteins and allows the prediction of the lifetime of unknown fluorescent proteins from jellyfish.

Using Chemistry To Recreate the Complexity of the Extracellular Matrix: Guidelines for Supramolecular Hydrogel-Cell Interactions

Hydrogels have emerged as a promising class of extracellular matrix (ECM)-mimicking materials in regenerative medicine. Here, we briefly describe current state-of-the-art of ECM-mimicking hydrogels, ranging from natural to hybrid to completely synthetic versions, giving the prelude to the importance of supramolecular interactions to make true ECM mimics. The potential of supramolecular interactions to create ECM mimics for cell culture is illustrated through a focus on two different supramolecular hydrogel systems, both developed in our laboratories. We use some recent, significant findings to present important design principles underlying the cell-material interaction. To achieve cell spreading, we propose that slow molecular dynamics (monomer exchange within fibers) is crucial to ensure the robust incorporation of cell adhesion ligands within supramolecular fibers. Slow bulk dynamics (stress-relaxation─fiber rearrangements, τ1/2 ≈ 1000 s) is required to achieve cell spreading in soft gels (<1 kPa), while gel stiffness overrules dynamics in stiffer gels. Importantly, this resonates with the findings of others which specialize in different material types: cell spreading is impaired in case substrate relaxation occurs faster than clutch binding and focal adhesion lifetime. We conclude with discussing considerations and limitations of the supramolecular approach as well as provide a forward thinking perspective to further understand supramolecular hydrogel-cell interactions. Future work may utilize the presented guidelines underlying cell-material interactions to not only arrive at the next generation of ECM-mimicking hydrogels but also advance other fields, such as bioelectronics, opening up new opportunities for innovative applications.

Förster resonance energy transfer within the neomycin aptamer

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) measurements between two dyes is a powerful method to interrogate both structure and dynamics of biopolymers. The intensity of a fluorescence signal in a FRET measurement is dependent on both the distance and the relative orientation of the dyes. The latter can at the same time both complicate the analysis and give more detailed information. Here we present a detailed spectroscopic study of the energy transfer between the rigid FRET labels Çmf (donor) and tCnitro (quencher/acceptor) within the neomycin aptamer N1. The energy transfer originates from multiple emitting states of the donor and occurs on a low picosecond to nanosecond time-scale. To fully characterize the energy transfer, ultrafast transient absorption measurements were performed in conjunction with static fluorescence and time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) measurements, showing a clear distance dependence of both signal intensity and lifetime. Using a known NMR structure of the ligand-bound neomycin aptamer, the distance between the two labels was used to estimate κ2 and, therefore, make qualitative statements about the change in orientation after ligand binding with unprecedented temporal and spatial resolution. The advantages and potential applications of absorption-based methods using rigid labels for the characterization of FRET processes are discussed.

Particle-based phasor-FLIM-FRET resolves protein-protein interactions inside single viral particles

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) is a popular modality to create additional contrast in fluorescence images. By carefully analyzing pixel-based nanosecond lifetime patterns, FLIM allows studying complex molecular populations. At the single-molecule or single-particle level, however, image series often suffer from low signal intensities per pixel, rendering it difficult to quantitatively disentangle different lifetime species, such as during Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) analysis in the presence of a significant donor-only fraction. In this article we investigate whether an object localization strategy and the phasor approach to FLIM have beneficial effects when carrying out FRET analyses of single particles. Using simulations, we first showed that an average of ∼300 photons, spread over the different pixels encompassing single fluorescing particles and without background, is enough to determine a correct phasor signature (SD < 5% for a 4-ns lifetime). For immobilized single- or double-labeled dsDNA molecules, we next validated that particle-based phasor-FLIM-FRET readily allows estimating fluorescence lifetimes and FRET from single molecules. Thirdly, we applied particle-based phasor-FLIM-FRET to investigate protein-protein interactions in subdiffraction HIV-1 viral particles. To do this, we first quantitatively compared the fluorescence brightness, lifetime, and photostability of different popular fluorescent protein-based FRET probes when genetically fused to the HIV-1 integrase enzyme in viral particles, and conclude that eGFP, mTurquoise2, and mScarlet perform best. Finally, for viral particles coexpressing FRET-donor/acceptor-labeled IN, we determined the absolute FRET efficiency of IN oligomers. Available in a convenient open-source graphical user interface, we believe that particle-based phasor-FLIM-FRET is a promising tool to provide detailed insights in samples suffering from low overall signal intensities.

Smart genetically-encoded biosensors for the chemical monitoring of living systems

Genetically-encoded biosensors provide the all-optical and non-invasive visualization of dynamic biochemical events within living systems, which has allowed the discovery of profound new insights. Twenty-five years of biosensor development has steadily improved their performance and has provided us with an ever increasing biosensor repertoire. In this feature article, we present recent advances made in biosensor development and provide a perspective on the future direction of the field.

Monitoring the in vivo siRNA release from lipid nanoparticles based on the fluorescence resonance energy transfer principle

The siRNA-loaded lipid nanoparticles have attracted much attention due to its significant gene silencing effect and successful marketization. However, the in vivo distribution and release of siRNA still cannot be effectively monitored. In this study, based on the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) principle, a fluorescence dye Cy5-modified survivin siRNA was conjugated to nanogolds (Au-DR-siRNA), which were then wrapped with lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for monitoring the release behaviour of siRNA in vivo. The results showed that once Au-DR-siRNA was released from the LNPs and cleaved by the Dicer enzyme to produce free siRNA in cells, the fluorescence of Cy5 would change from quenched state to activated state, showing the location and time of siRNA release. Besides, the LNPs showed a significant antitumor effect by silencing the survivin gene and a CT imaging function superior to iohexol by nanogolds. Therefore, this work provided not only an effective method for monitoring the pharmacokinetic behaviour of LNP-based siRNA, but also a siRNA delivery system for treating and diagnosing tumors.

Spectrally Tunable Förster Resonance Energy Transfer-Based Biosensors Using Organic Dye Grafting

Biosensors based on Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) have revolutionized cellular biology by allowing the direct measurement of biochemical processes in situ. Many genetically encoded sensors make use of fluorescent proteins that are limited in spectral versatility and that allow few ways to change the spectral properties once the construct has been created. In this work, we developed genetically encoded FRET biosensors based on the chemigenetic SNAP and HaloTag domains combined with matching organic fluorophores. We found that the resulting constructs can display comparable responses, kinetics, and reversibility compared to their fluorescent protein-based ancestors, but with the added advantage of spectral versatility, including the availability of red-shifted dye pairs. However, we also find that the introduction of these tags can alter the sensor readout, showing that careful validation is required before applying such constructs in practice. Overall, our approach delivers an innovative methodology that can readily expand the spectral variety and versatility of FRET-based biosensors.

Electronic Tuning in Reaction-Based Fluorescent Sensing for Instantaneous and Ultrasensitive Visualization of Ethylenediamine

Manipulation of a multi-physical quantity to steer a molecular photophysical property is of great significance in improving sensing performance. Here, an investigation on how a physical quantity rooted in the molecular structure induces an optical behavior change to facilitate ultrasensitive detection of ethylenediamine (EDA) is performed by varying a set of thiols. The model molecule consisting of a thiol with dual-carboxyl exhibits the strongest fluorescence, which is ascribed to the electron-donating ability and prompted larger orbital overlap and oscillator strength. The elevated fluorescence positively corelated to the increased EDA, endowing an ultrasensitive response to the nanomolar-liquid/ppm-vapor. A gas detector with superior performance fulfills a contactless and real-time management of EDA. We envisage this electron-tuning strategy-enabled fluorescence enhancement can offer in-depth insight in advancing molecule-customized design, further paving the way to widening applications.

Absolute measurement of cellular activities using photochromic single-fluorophore biosensors and intermittent quantification

Genetically-encoded biosensors based on a single fluorescent protein are widely used to visualize analyte levels or enzymatic activities in cells, though usually to monitor relative changes rather than absolute values. We report photochromism-enabled absolute quantification (PEAQ) biosensing, a method that leverages the photochromic properties of biosensors to provide an absolute measure of the analyte concentration or activity. We develop proof-of-concept photochromic variants of the popular GCaMP family of Ca²⁺ biosensors, and show that these can be used to resolve dynamic changes in the absolute Ca²⁺ concentration in live cells. We also develop intermittent quantification, a technique that combines absolute aquisitions with fast fluorescence acquisitions to deliver fast but fully quantitative measurements. We also show how the photochromism-based measurements can be expanded to situations where the absolute illumination intensities are unknown. In principle, PEAQ biosensing can be applied to other biosensors with photochromic properties, thereby expanding the possibilities for fully quantitative measurements in complex and dynamic systems.

Biosensors often report relative rather than absolute values. Here the authors report a method that utilises the photochromic properties of biosensors to provide an absolute measure of the analyte concentration or activity: photochromism-enabled absolute quantification (PEAQ) biosensing.

Dimming the donor to brighten up FRET-based biosensors

The current biosensors based on Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) lack good anisotrophy-based indicators for detecting rotational changes triggered by analyte-binding. Laskaratou et al. developed a FRET-induced Angular Displacement Evaluation via Dim donor (FADED) tool to expand the existing toolkit. With less bleed-through from a donor with dim fluorescence, the changes in acceptor anisotropy signals of these tools could readily indicate cytosolic calcium dynamics.