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Spohn T, Hudson TL, Marteau E, Golombek M, Grott M, Wippermann T, Ali KS, Schmelzbach C, Kedar S, Hurst K, Trebi-Ollennu A, Ansan V, Garvin J, Knollenberg J, Müller N, Piqueux S, Lichtenheldt R, Krause C, Fantinati C, Brinkman N, Sollberger D, Delage P, Vrettos C, Reershemius S, Wisniewski L, Grygorczuk J, Robertsson J, Edme P, Andersson F, Krömer O, Lognonné P, Giardini D, Smrekar SE, Banerdt WB. The InSight HP 3 Penetrator (Mole) on Mars: Soil Properties Derived from the Penetration Attempts and Related Activities. SPACE SCIENCE REVIEWS 2022; 218:72. [PMID: 36514324 PMCID: PMC9734249 DOI: 10.1007/s11214-022-00941-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The NASA InSight Lander on Mars includes the Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package HP3 to measure the surface heat flow of the planet. The package uses temperature sensors that would have been brought to the target depth of 3-5 m by a small penetrator, nicknamed the mole. The mole requiring friction on its hull to balance remaining recoil from its hammer mechanism did not penetrate to the targeted depth. Instead, by precessing about a point midway along its hull, it carved a 7 cm deep and 5-6 cm wide pit and reached a depth of initially 31 cm. The root cause of the failure - as was determined through an extensive, almost two years long campaign - was a lack of friction in an unexpectedly thick cohesive duricrust. During the campaign - described in detail in this paper - the mole penetrated further aided by friction applied using the scoop at the end of the robotic Instrument Deployment Arm and by direct support by the latter. The mole tip finally reached a depth of about 37 cm, bringing the mole back-end 1-2 cm below the surface. It reversed its downward motion twice during attempts to provide friction through pressure on the regolith instead of directly with the scoop to the mole hull. The penetration record of the mole was used to infer mechanical soil parameters such as the penetration resistance of the duricrust of 0.3-0.7 MPa and a penetration resistance of a deeper layer ( > 30 cm depth) of 4.9 ± 0.4 MPa . Using the mole's thermal sensors, thermal conductivity and diffusivity were measured. Applying cone penetration theory, the resistance of the duricrust was used to estimate a cohesion of the latter of 2-15 kPa depending on the internal friction angle of the duricrust. Pushing the scoop with its blade into the surface and chopping off a piece of duricrust provided another estimate of the cohesion of 5.8 kPa. The hammerings of the mole were recorded by the seismometer SEIS and the signals were used to derive P-wave and S-wave velocities representative of the topmost tens of cm of the regolith. Together with the density provided by a thermal conductivity and diffusivity measurement using the mole's thermal sensors, the elastic moduli were calculated from the seismic velocities. Using empirical correlations from terrestrial soil studies between the shear modulus and cohesion, the previous cohesion estimates were found to be consistent with the elastic moduli. The combined data were used to derive a model of the regolith that has an about 20 cm thick duricrust underneath a 1 cm thick unconsolidated layer of sand mixed with dust and above another 10 cm of unconsolidated sand. Underneath the latter, a layer more resistant to penetration and possibly containing debris from a small impact crater is inferred. The thermal conductivity increases from 14 mW/m K to 34 mW/m K through the 1 cm sand/dust layer, keeps the latter value in the duricrust and the sand layer underneath and then increases to 64 mW/m K in the sand/gravel layer below. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11214-022-00941-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. Spohn
- International Space Science Institute, Hallerstrasse 6, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
- DLR Institute of Planetary Research, Rutherfordstr. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - T. L. Hudson
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA
| | - E. Marteau
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA
| | - M. Golombek
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA
| | - M. Grott
- DLR Institute of Planetary Research, Rutherfordstr. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - T. Wippermann
- DLR Institute of Space Systems, Robert-Hooke-Str. 7, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - K. S. Ali
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA
| | - C. Schmelzbach
- Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zürich, Institute of Geophysics, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - S. Kedar
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA
| | - K. Hurst
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA
| | - A. Trebi-Ollennu
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA
| | - V. Ansan
- Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géodynamique de Nantes, Université de Nantes, 44322 Nantes, France
| | - J. Garvin
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 8800 Greenbelt Road, Greenbelt, MD 20771 USA
| | - J. Knollenberg
- DLR Institute of Planetary Research, Rutherfordstr. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - N. Müller
- DLR Institute of Planetary Research, Rutherfordstr. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - S. Piqueux
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA
| | - R. Lichtenheldt
- DLR Institute of System Dynamics and Control, Münchener Strasse 20, 82234 Wessling, Germany
| | - C. Krause
- DLR MUSC Space Operations and Astronaut Training, Linder Höhe, 51147 Köln, Germany
| | - C. Fantinati
- DLR MUSC Space Operations and Astronaut Training, Linder Höhe, 51147 Köln, Germany
| | - N. Brinkman
- Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zürich, Institute of Geophysics, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - D. Sollberger
- Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zürich, Institute of Geophysics, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - P. Delage
- École nationale des ponts et chaussées, Laboratoire Navier, Paris, France
| | - C. Vrettos
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - S. Reershemius
- DLR Institute of Space Systems, Robert-Hooke-Str. 7, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - L. Wisniewski
- Astronika Sp. z o.o., ul. Bartycka 18, 00-716 Warszawa, Poland
| | - J. Grygorczuk
- Astronika Sp. z o.o., ul. Bartycka 18, 00-716 Warszawa, Poland
| | - J. Robertsson
- Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zürich, Institute of Geophysics, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - P. Edme
- Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zürich, Institute of Geophysics, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - F. Andersson
- Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zürich, Institute of Geophysics, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - P. Lognonné
- Institut du Physique du Globe Paris, CNRS, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - D. Giardini
- Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zürich, Institute of Geophysics, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - S. E. Smrekar
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA
| | - W. B. Banerdt
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA
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Brinkman N, Schmelzbach C, Sollberger D, Pierick JT, Edme P, Haag T, Kedar S, Hudson T, Andersson F, van Driel M, Stähler S, Nicollier T, Robertsson J, Giardini D, Spohn T, Krause C, Grott M, Knollenberg J, Hurst K, Rochas L, Vallade J, Blandin S, Lognonné P, Pike WT, Banerdt WB. In Situ Regolith Seismic Velocity Measurement at the InSight Landing Site on Mars. JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. PLANETS 2022; 127:e2022JE007229. [PMID: 36582924 PMCID: PMC9787532 DOI: 10.1029/2022je007229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Interior exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport's (InSight) seismometer package Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS) was placed on the surface of Mars at about 1.2 m distance from the thermal properties instrument Heat flow and Physical Properties Package (HP3) that includes a self-hammering probe. Recording the hammering noise with SEIS provided a unique opportunity to estimate the seismic wave velocities of the shallow regolith at the landing site. However, the value of studying the seismic signals of the hammering was only realized after critical hardware decisions were already taken. Furthermore, the design and nominal operation of both SEIS and HP3 are nonideal for such high-resolution seismic measurements. Therefore, a series of adaptations had to be implemented to operate the self-hammering probe as a controlled seismic source and SEIS as a high-frequency seismic receiver including the design of a high-precision timing and an innovative high-frequency sampling workflow. By interpreting the first-arriving seismic waves as a P-wave and identifying first-arriving S-waves by polarization analysis, we determined effective P- and S-wave velocities of v P = 11 9 - 21 + 45 m/s and v S = 6 3 - 7 + 11 m/s, respectively, from around 2,000 hammer stroke recordings. These velocities likely represent bulk estimates for the uppermost several 10s of cm of regolith. An analysis of the P-wave incidence angles provided an independent v P /v S ratio estimate of 1.8 4 - 0.35 + 0.89 that compares well with the traveltime based estimate of 1.8 6 - 0.25 + 0.42 . The low seismic velocities are consistent with those observed for low-density unconsolidated sands and are in agreement with estimates obtained by other methods.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Pascal Edme
- Institute of GeophysicsETH ZürichZürichSwitzerland
| | - Thomas Haag
- Institute of GeophysicsETH ZürichZürichSwitzerland
| | - Sharon Kedar
- NASA Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadenaCAUSA
| | - Troy Hudson
- NASA Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadenaCAUSA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Tilman Spohn
- Deutsches Zentrum für Luft‐ und Raumfahrt (DLR)BremenGermany
- International Space Science InstituteBernSwitzerland
| | | | - Matthias Grott
- Deutsches Zentrum für Luft‐ und Raumfahrt (DLR)BremenGermany
| | | | - Ken Hurst
- NASA Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadenaCAUSA
| | - Ludovic Rochas
- Centre National des Études Spatiales (CNES)ToulouseFrance
| | - Julien Vallade
- Centre National des Études Spatiales (CNES)ToulouseFrance
| | - Steve Blandin
- Centre National des Études Spatiales (CNES)ToulouseFrance
| | - Philippe Lognonné
- Université Paris CitéInstitut de physique du globe de ParisCNRSParisFrance
| | | | - W. Bruce Banerdt
- NASA Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadenaCAUSA
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Li C, Zheng Y, Wang X, Zhang J, Wang Y, Chen L, Zhang L, Zhao P, Liu Y, Lv W, Liu Y, Zhao X, Hao J, Sun W, Liu X, Jia B, Li J, Lan H, Fa W, Pan Y, Wu F. Layered subsurface in Utopia Basin of Mars revealed by Zhurong rover radar. Nature 2022; 610:308-312. [PMID: 36163288 PMCID: PMC9556330 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05147-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Exploring the subsurface structure and stratification of Mars advances our understanding of Martian geology, hydrological evolution and palaeoclimatic changes, and has been a main task for past and continuing Mars exploration missions1-10. Utopia Planitia, the smooth plains of volcanic and sedimentary strata that infilled the Utopia impact crater, has been a prime target for such exploration as it is inferred to have hosted an ancient ocean on Mars11-13. However, 45 years have passed since Viking-2 provided ground-based detection results. Here we report an in situ ground-penetrating radar survey of Martian subsurface structure in a southern marginal area of Utopia Planitia conducted by the Zhurong rover of the Tianwen-1 mission. A detailed subsurface image profile is constructed along the roughly 1,171 m traverse of the rover, showing an approximately 70-m-thick, multi-layered structure below a less than 10-m-thick regolith. Although alternative models deserve further scrutiny, the new radar image suggests the occurrence of episodic hydraulic flooding sedimentation that is interpreted to represent the basin infilling of Utopia Planitia during the Late Hesperian to Amazonian. While no direct evidence for the existence of liquid water was found within the radar detection depth range, we cannot rule out the presence of saline ice in the subsurface of the landing area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Li
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yikang Zheng
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resource Research, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Wang
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jinhai Zhang
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yibo Wang
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resource Research, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ling Chen
- grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China ,grid.458476.c0000 0004 0605 1722State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Pan Zhao
- grid.458476.c0000 0004 0605 1722State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yike Liu
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resource Research, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wenmin Lv
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Liu
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309State Key Laboratory of Space Weather, National Space Science Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China ,grid.9227.e0000000119573309Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China
| | - Xu Zhao
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jinlai Hao
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Weijia Sun
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaofeng Liu
- grid.11135.370000 0001 2256 9319Institute of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Bojun Jia
- grid.11135.370000 0001 2256 9319Institute of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Juan Li
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Haiqiang Lan
- grid.458476.c0000 0004 0605 1722State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wenzhe Fa
- grid.11135.370000 0001 2256 9319Institute of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yongxin Pan
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fuyuan Wu
- grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China ,grid.458476.c0000 0004 0605 1722State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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