1
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Böning P, Lötters S, Barzaghi B, Bock M, Bok B, Bonato L, Ficetola GF, Glaser F, Griese J, Grabher M, Leroux C, Munimanda G, Manenti R, Ludwig G, Preininger D, Rödel MO, Seibold S, Smith S, Tiemann L, Thein J, Veith M, Plewnia A. Alpine salamanders at risk? The current status of an emerging fungal pathogen. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0298591. [PMID: 38758948 PMCID: PMC11101120 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0298591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Amphibians globally suffer from emerging infectious diseases like chytridiomycosis caused by the continuously spreading chytrid fungi. One is Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) and its disease ‒ the 'salamander plague' ‒ which is lethal to several caudate taxa. Recently introduced into Western Europe, long distance dispersal of Bsal, likely through human mediation, has been reported. Herein we study if Alpine salamanders (Salamandra atra and S. lanzai) are yet affected by the salamander plague in the wild. Members of the genus Salamandra are highly susceptible to Bsal leading to the lethal disease. Moreover, ecological modelling has shown that the Alps and Dinarides, where Alpine salamanders occur, are generally suitable for Bsal. We analysed skin swabs of 818 individuals of Alpine salamanders and syntopic amphibians at 40 sites between 2017 to 2022. Further, we compiled those with published data from 319 individuals from 13 sites concluding that Bsal infections were not detected. Our results suggest that the salamander plague so far is absent from the geographic ranges of Alpine salamanders. That means that there is still a chance to timely implement surveillance strategies. Among others, we recommend prevention measures, citizen science approaches, and ex situ conservation breeding of endemic salamandrid lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Böning
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Stefan Lötters
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Benedetta Barzaghi
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Marvin Bock
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Bobby Bok
- St. Michael College, Zaandam, Netherlands
| | - Lucio Bonato
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- National Biodiversity Future Center, Palermo, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | - Camille Leroux
- Centre d’Ecologie et des Sciences de la Conservation (CESCO), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- Auddicé Biodiversité–ZAC du Chevalement, Roost-Warendin, France
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gopikrishna Munimanda
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Raoul Manenti
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Mark-Oliver Rödel
- Museum für Naturkunde–Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sebastian Seibold
- Forest Zoology, Technische Universität Dresden, Tharandt, Germany
- Berchtesgaden National Park, Berchtesgaden, Germany
- Ecosystem Dynamics and Forest Management, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Steve Smith
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Laura Tiemann
- Department of Neurology, TUM School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jürgen Thein
- Büro für Faunistik und Umweltbildung, Haßfurt, Germany
| | - Michael Veith
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Amadeus Plewnia
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
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Wacker T, Helmstetter N, Studholme DJ, Farrer RA. Genome variation in the Batrachochytrium pathogens of amphibians. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012218. [PMID: 38781266 PMCID: PMC11115238 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Wacker
- Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Nicolas Helmstetter
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | | | - Rhys A. Farrer
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
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3
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McGrath-Blaser SE, McGathey N, Pardon A, Hartmann AM, Longo AV. Invasibility of a North American soil ecosystem to amphibian-killing fungal pathogens. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20232658. [PMID: 38628130 PMCID: PMC11021929 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.2658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
North American salamanders are threatened by intercontinental spread of chytridiomycosis, a deadly disease caused by the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal). To predict potential dispersal of Bsal spores to salamander habitats, we evaluated the capacity of soil microbial communities to resist invasion. We determined the degree of habitat invasibility using soils from five locations throughout the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, a region with a high abundance of susceptible hosts. Our experimental design consisted of replicate soil microcosms exposed to different propagule pressures of the non-native pathogen, Bsal, and an introduced but endemic pathogen, B. dendrobatidis (Bd). To compare growth and competitive interactions, we used quantitative PCR, live/dead cell viability assays, and full-length 16S rRNA sequencing. We found that soil microcosms with intact bacterial communities inhibited both Bsal and Bd growth, but inhibitory capacity diminished with increased propagule pressure. Bsal showed greater persistence than Bd. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) identified the family Burkolderiaceae as increasing in relative abundance with the decline of both pathogens. Although our findings provide evidence of environmental filtering in soils, such barriers weakened in response to pathogen type and propagule pressure, showing that habitats vary their invasibility based on properties of their local microbial communities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Natalie McGathey
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Allison Pardon
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Arik M. Hartmann
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Ana V. Longo
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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Talavera A, Palmada-Flores M, Burriel-Carranza B, Valbuena-Ureña E, Mochales-Riaño G, Adams DC, Tejero-Cicuéndez H, Soler-Membrives A, Amat F, Guinart D, Carbonell F, Obon E, Marquès-Bonet T, Carranza S. Genomic insights into the Montseny brook newt ( Calotriton arnoldi), a Critically Endangered glacial relict. iScience 2024; 27:108665. [PMID: 38226169 PMCID: PMC10788218 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024] Open
Abstract
The Montseny brook newt (Calotriton arnoldi), considered the most endangered amphibian in Europe, is a relict salamandrid species endemic to a small massif located in northeastern Spain. Although conservation efforts should always be guided by genomic studies, those are yet scarce among urodeles, hampered by the extreme sizes of their genomes. Here, we present the third available genome assembly for the order Caudata, and the first genomic study of the species and its sister taxon, the Pyrenean brook newt (Calotriton asper), combining whole-genome and ddRADseq data. Our results reveal significant demographic oscillations which accurately mirrored Europe's climatic history. Although severe bottlenecks have led to depauperate genomic diversity and long runs of homozygosity along a gigantic genome, inbreeding might have been avoided by assortative mating strategies. Other life history traits, however, seem to have been less advantageous, and the lack of land dispersal has driven to exceptional levels of population fragmentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrián Talavera
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marc Palmada-Flores
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Bernat Burriel-Carranza
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Spain
- Museu de Ciències Naturals de Barcelona, Pº Picasso s/n, Parc Ciutadella, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | | - Dean C. Adams
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50010, USA
| | - Héctor Tejero-Cicuéndez
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution, Faculty of Biology, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Anna Soler-Membrives
- Departament de Biologia Animal, de Biologia Vegetal i d'Ecologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Fèlix Amat
- Àrea d’Herpetologia, BiBIO, Museu de Granollers – Ciències Naturals. Palaudàries 102, Granollers, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Guinart
- Servei de Gestió de Parcs Naturals, Diputació de Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francesc Carbonell
- Centre de fauna salvatge de Torreferrussa (Forestal Catalana, SA), Santa Perpètua de Mogoda, Spain
| | - Elena Obon
- Centre de fauna salvatge de Torreferrussa (Forestal Catalana, SA), Santa Perpètua de Mogoda, Spain
| | - Tomàs Marquès-Bonet
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Spain
- CNAG-CRG, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
- Catalan Institution of Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Salvador Carranza
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Spain
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Erens J, Preissler K, Speybroeck J, Beukema W, Spitzen-van der Sluijs A, Stark T, Laudelout A, Kinet T, Schmidt BR, Martel A, Steinfartz S, Pasmans F. Divergent population responses following salamander mass mortalities and declines driven by the emerging pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230510. [PMID: 37752840 PMCID: PMC10523083 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding wildlife responses to novel threats is vital in counteracting biodiversity loss. The emerging pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) causes dramatic declines in European salamander populations, and is considered an imminent threat to global amphibian biodiversity. However, real-life disease outcomes remain largely uncharacterized. We performed a multidisciplinary assessment of the longer-term impacts of Bsal on highly susceptible fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) populations, by comparing four of the earliest known outbreak sites to uninfected sites. Based on large-scale monitoring efforts, we found population persistence in strongly reduced abundances to over a decade after Bsal invasion, but also the extinction of an initially small-sized population. In turn, we found that host responses varied, and Bsal detection remained low, within surviving populations. Demographic analyses indicated an ongoing scarcity of large reproductive adults with potential for recruitment failure, while spatial comparisons indicated a population remnant persisting within aberrant habitat. Additionally, we detected no early signs of severe genetic deterioration, yet nor of increased host resistance. Beyond offering additional context to Bsal-driven salamander declines, results highlight how the impacts of emerging hypervirulent pathogens can be unpredictable and vary across different levels of biological complexity, and how limited pathogen detectability after population declines may complicate surveillance efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse Erens
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | | | - Wouter Beukema
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Reptile, Amphibian & Fish Conservation Netherlands (RAVON), Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Annemarieke Spitzen-van der Sluijs
- Reptile, Amphibian & Fish Conservation Netherlands (RAVON), Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Animal Ecology and Physiology, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Tariq Stark
- Reptile, Amphibian & Fish Conservation Netherlands (RAVON), Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Benedikt R. Schmidt
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Info fauna karch, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - An Martel
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Frank Pasmans
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Sun D, Ellepola G, Herath J, Meegaskumbura M. Ecological Barriers for an Amphibian Pathogen: A Narrow Ecological Niche for Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans in an Asian Chytrid Hotspot. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:911. [PMID: 37755019 PMCID: PMC10532633 DOI: 10.3390/jof9090911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 09/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The chytrid fungal pathogens Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) and B. dendrobatidis (Bd) are driving amphibian extinctions and population declines worldwide. As their origins are believed to be in East/Southeast Asia, this region is crucial for understanding their ecology. However, Bsal screening is relatively limited in this region, particularly in hotspots where Bd lineage diversity is high. To address this gap, we conducted an extensive Bsal screening involving 1101 individuals from 36 amphibian species, spanning 17 natural locations and four captive facilities in the biodiversity-rich Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GAR). Our PCR assays yielded unexpected results, revealing the complete absence of Bsal in all tested samples including 51 individuals with Bd presence. To understand the potential distribution of Bsal, we created niche models, utilizing existing occurrence records from both Asia and Europe. These models estimated potential suitable habitats for Bsal largely in the northern and southwestern parts of the GAR. Although Bsal was absent in our samples, the niche models identified 10 study sites as being potentially suitable for this pathogen. Interestingly, out of these 10 sites, Bd was detected at 8. This suggests that Bsal and Bd could possibly co-exist in these habitats, if Bsal were present. Several factors seem to influence the distribution of Bsal in Asia, including variations in temperature, local caudate species diversity, elevation, and human population density. However, it is climate-related factors that hold the greatest significance, accounting for a notable 60% contribution. The models propose that the specific climatic conditions of arid regions, primarily seen in the GAR, play a major role in the distribution of Bsal. Considering the increased pathogenicity of Bsal at stable and cooler temperatures (10-15 °C), species-dependent variations, and the potential for seasonal Bd-Bsal interactions, we emphasize the importance of periodic monitoring for Bsal within its projected range in the GAR. Our study provides deeper insights into Bsal's ecological niche and the knowledge generated will facilitate conservation efforts in amphibian populations devastated by chytrid pathogens across other regions of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Sun
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning 530000, China; (D.S.)
| | - Gajaba Ellepola
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning 530000, China; (D.S.)
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Kandy 20400, Sri Lanka
| | - Jayampathi Herath
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning 530000, China; (D.S.)
- School of Biomedical Sciences, International Institute of Health Sciences (IIHS), No. 704 Negombo Road, Welisara 71722, Sri Lanka
| | - Madhava Meegaskumbura
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning 530000, China; (D.S.)
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Schilliger L, Paillusseau C, François C, Bonwitt J. Major Emerging Fungal Diseases of Reptiles and Amphibians. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12030429. [PMID: 36986351 PMCID: PMC10053826 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12030429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are caused by pathogens that have undergone recent changes in terms of geographic spread, increasing incidence, or expanding host range. In this narrative review, we describe three important fungal EIDs with keratin trophism that are relevant to reptile and amphibian conservation and veterinary practice. Nannizziopsis spp. have been mainly described in saurians; infection results in thickened, discolored skin crusting, with eventual progression to deep tissues. Previously only reported in captive populations, it was first described in wild animals in Australia in 2020. Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (formely O. ophiodiicola) is only known to infect snakes; clinical signs include ulcerating lesions in the cranial, ventral, and pericloacal regions. It has been associated with mortality events in wild populations in North America. Batrachochytrium spp. cause ulceration, hyperkeratosis, and erythema in amphibians. They are a major cause of catastrophic amphibian declines worldwide. In general, infection and clinical course are determined by host-related characteristics (e.g., nutritional, metabolic, and immune status), pathogens (e.g., virulence and environmental survival), and environment (e.g., temperature, hygrometry, and water quality). The animal trade is thought to be an important cause of worldwide spread, with global modifications in temperature, hygrometry, and water quality further affecting fungal pathogenicity and host immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Schilliger
- Argos Veterinary Clinic of Paris Auteuil, 35 Rue Leconte de Lisle, 75016 Paris, France
- SpéNac Referral Center, 100 Boulevard de la Tour Maubourg, 75007 Paris, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-188-616-831
| | - Clément Paillusseau
- Argos Veterinary Clinic of Paris Auteuil, 35 Rue Leconte de Lisle, 75016 Paris, France
- SpéNac Referral Center, 100 Boulevard de la Tour Maubourg, 75007 Paris, France
| | - Camille François
- Argos Veterinary Clinic of Paris Auteuil, 35 Rue Leconte de Lisle, 75016 Paris, France
- SpéNac Referral Center, 100 Boulevard de la Tour Maubourg, 75007 Paris, France
| | - Jesse Bonwitt
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, South Rd., Durham DH1 3LE, UK
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Wacker T, Helmstetter N, Wilson D, Fisher MC, Studholme DJ, Farrer RA. Two-speed genome evolution drives pathogenicity in fungal pathogens of animals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2212633120. [PMID: 36595674 PMCID: PMC9926174 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2212633120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The origins and evolution of virulence in amphibian-infecting chytrids Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) are largely unknown. Here, we use deep nanopore sequencing of Bsal and comparative genomics against 21 high-quality genome assemblies that span the fungal Chytridiomycota. We discover that Bsal has the most repeat-rich genome of the Chytridiomycota, comprising 40.9% repetitive elements; this genome has expanded to more than 3× the length of its conspecific Bd, with autonomous and fully functional LTR/Gypsy elements contributing significantly to the expansion. The M36 metalloprotease virulence factors are highly expanded (n = 177) in Bsal, most of which (53%) are flanked by transposable elements, suggesting they have a repeat-associated expansion. We find enrichment upstream of M36 metalloprotease genes of three novel repeat families belonging to the repeat superfamily of LINEs that are implicated with gene copy number variations. Additionally, Bsal has a highly compartmentalized genome architecture, with virulence factors enriched in gene-sparse/repeat-rich compartments, while core conserved genes are enriched in gene-rich/repeat-poor compartments. Genes upregulated during infection are primarily found in the gene-sparse/repeat-rich compartment in both Bd and Bsal. Furthermore, genes with signatures of positive selection in Bd are enriched in repeat-rich regions, suggesting these regions are a cradle for the evolution of chytrid pathogenicity. These are the hallmarks of two-speed genome evolution, and this study provides evidence of two-speed genomes in an animal pathogen, shedding light on the evolution of fungal pathogens of vertebrates driving global declines and extinctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Wacker
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QD, United Kingdom
| | - Nicolas Helmstetter
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QD, United Kingdom
| | - Duncan Wilson
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QD, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew C. Fisher
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College London, LondonW12 0BZ, United Kingdom
| | - David J. Studholme
- Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QD, United Kingdom
| | - Rhys A. Farrer
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, ExeterEX4 4QD, United Kingdom
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Strachinis I, Marschang RE, Lymberakis P, Karagianni KM, Azmanis P. Infectious disease threats to amphibians in Greece: new localities positive for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2022; 152:127-138. [PMID: 36519684 DOI: 10.3354/dao03712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
In the early 2000s, numerous cases of European amphibian population declines and mass die-offs started to emerge. Investigating those events led to the discovery that wild European amphibians were confronted with grave disease threats caused by introduced pathogens, namely the amphibian and the salamander chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and B. salamandrivorans (Bsal) and ranaviruses. In Greece, Bd was previously documented among wild amphibian populations in 2 different locations and 3 different species. However, no disease-related mass declines or mortality events have been reported. In this work, we build upon previous findings with new, subsequently obtained data, resulting in a 225-sample dataset of 14 species from 17 different locations throughout Greece, in order to examine the occurrence status of all 3 pathogens responsible for emerging infectious diseases in European amphibians. No positive samples for Bsal or ranavirus were recorded in any location. We confirmed the presence of Bd in 4 more localities and in 4 more species, including 1 urodelan (Macedonian crested newt Triturus macedonicus) and 1 introduced anuran (American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus). All insular localities were negative for Bd, except for Crete, where Bd was identified in 2 different locations. Again, no mass declines or die-offs were recorded in any Bd-positive area or elsewhere. However, given the persistence of Bd across Greece over the past ~20 yr, monitoring efforts should continue, and ideally be further expanded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilias Strachinis
- Department of Genetics, Development and Molecular Biology, School of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54636, Greece
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