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Bogdziewicz M, Kelly D, Ascoli D, Caignard T, Chianucci F, Crone EE, Fleurot E, Foest JJ, Gratzer G, Hagiwara T, Han Q, Journé V, Keurinck L, Kondrat K, McClory R, La Montagne JM, Mundo IA, Nussbaumer A, Oberklammer I, Ohno M, Pearse IS, Pesendorfer MB, Resente G, Satake A, Shibata M, Snell RS, Szymkowiak J, Touzot L, Zwolak R, Zywiec M, Hacket-Pain AJ. Evolutionary ecology of masting: mechanisms, models, and climate change. Trends Ecol Evol 2024:S0169-5347(24)00117-4. [PMID: 38862358 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2024.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
Many perennial plants show mast seeding, characterized by synchronous and highly variable reproduction across years. We propose a general model of masting, integrating proximate factors (environmental variation, weather cues, and resource budgets) with ultimate drivers (predator satiation and pollination efficiency). This general model shows how the relationships between masting and weather shape the diverse responses of species to climate warming, ranging from no change to lower interannual variation or reproductive failure. The role of environmental prediction as a masting driver is being reassessed; future studies need to estimate prediction accuracy and the benefits acquired. Since reproduction is central to plant adaptation to climate change, understanding how masting adapts to shifting environmental conditions is now a central question.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Bogdziewicz
- Forest Biology Center, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznanskiego 6, 61-614 Poznan, Poland.
| | - Dave Kelly
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
| | - Davide Ascoli
- Department of Agriculture, Forest, and Food Sciences, University of Torino, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, (TO), Italy
| | - Thomas Caignard
- University of Bordeaux, INRAE, BIOGECO, F-33610 Cestas, France
| | - Francesco Chianucci
- CREA - Research Centre for Forestry and Wood, viale S. Margherita 80, Arezzo, Italy
| | - Elizabeth E Crone
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Emilie Fleurot
- Department of Agriculture, Forest, and Food Sciences, University of Torino, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, (TO), Italy; Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive, UMR 5558, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Jessie J Foest
- Department of Geography and Planning, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Georg Gratzer
- Institute of Forest Ecology, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, BOKU University, Vienna, Peter-Jordan-Strasse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Tomika Hagiwara
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Qingmin Han
- Department of Plant Ecology, Forestry, and Forest Products Research Institute, Matsunosato 1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687, Japan
| | - Valentin Journé
- Forest Biology Center, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznanskiego 6, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
| | - Léa Keurinck
- Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive, UMR 5558, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Katarzyna Kondrat
- Forest Biology Center, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznanskiego 6, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
| | - Ryan McClory
- School of Agriculture, Policy, and Development, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | | | - Ignacio A Mundo
- Laboratorio de Dendrocronología e Historia Ambiental, IANIGLA-CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina; Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Anita Nussbaumer
- Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow, and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
| | - Iris Oberklammer
- Institute of Forest Ecology, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, BOKU University, Vienna, Peter-Jordan-Strasse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Misuzu Ohno
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Ian S Pearse
- US Geological Survey, Fort Collins Science Center, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA
| | - Mario B Pesendorfer
- Institute of Forest Ecology, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, BOKU University, Vienna, Peter-Jordan-Strasse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Giulia Resente
- Department of Agriculture, Forest, and Food Sciences, University of Torino, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, (TO), Italy
| | - Akiko Satake
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Mitsue Shibata
- Department of Forest Vegetation, Forestry, and Forest Products Research Institute, Matsunosato 1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687, Japan
| | - Rebecca S Snell
- Department of Environmental and Plant Biology, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
| | - Jakub Szymkowiak
- Forest Biology Center, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznanskiego 6, 61-614 Poznan, Poland; Population Ecology Research Unit, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznanskiego 6, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
| | - Laura Touzot
- Institut National de Recherche Pour Agriculture (INRAE), Alimentation et Environnement (IN23-RAE), Laboratoire EcoSystemes et Societes En Montagne (LESSEM), Université Grenoble Alpes, St Martin-d'Hères, 38402, France
| | - Rafal Zwolak
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznanskiego 6, 61-614 Poznan, Poland
| | - Magdalena Zywiec
- W. Szafer Institute of Botany, Polish Academy of Sciences, Lubicz 46, 31-512 Kraków, Poland
| | - Andrew J Hacket-Pain
- Department of Geography and Planning, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
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Wu H, Zhang J, Rodríguez-Calcerrada J, Salomón RL, Yin D, Zhang P, Shen H. Large investment of stored nitrogen and phosphorus in female cones is consistent with infrequent reproduction events of Pinus koraiensis, a high value woody oil crop in Northeast Asia. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 13:1084043. [PMID: 36714788 PMCID: PMC9878279 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1084043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Pinus koraiensis is famous for its high-quality timber production all the way and is much more famous for its high value health-care nut oil production potential since 1990's, but the less understanding of its reproduction biology seriously hindered its nut productivity increase. Exploring the effects of reproduction on nutrient uptake, allocation and storage help to understand and modify reproduction patterns in masting species and high nut yield cultivar selection and breeding. Here, we compared seasonality in growth and in nitrogen ([N]) and phosphorus ([P]) concentrations in needles, branches and cones of reproductive (cone-bearing) and vegetative branches (having no cones) of P. koraiensis during a masting year. The growth of one- and two-year-old reproductive branches was significantly higher than that of vegetative branches. Needle, phloem and xylem [N] and [P] were lower in reproductive branches than in vegetative branches, although the extent and significance of the differences between branch types varied across dates. [N] and [P] in most tissues were high in spring, decreased during summer, and then recovered by the end of the growing season. Overall, [N] and [P] were highest in needles, lowest in the xylem and intermediate in the phloem. More than half of the N (73.5%) and P (51.6%) content in reproductive branches were allocated to cones. There was a positive correlation between cone number and N and P content in needles (R2 = 0.64, R2 = 0.73) and twigs (R2 = 0.65, R2 = 0.62) of two-year-old reproductive branches. High nutrient sink strength of cones and vegetative tissues of reproductive branches suggested that customized fertilization practices can help improve crop yield in Pinus koraiensis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haibo Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, School of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China
- Department of Natural Systems and Resources, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Ciudad Universitaria s/n, Madrid, Spain
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Forest Ecosystem Management-Ministry of Education, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China
- State Forestry and Grassland Administration Engineering Technology Research Center of Korean Pine, Harbin, China
| | - Jianying Zhang
- Forestry Research Institute of Heilongjiang Province, Harbin, China
| | - Jesús Rodríguez-Calcerrada
- Department of Natural Systems and Resources, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Ciudad Universitaria s/n, Madrid, Spain
| | - Roberto L. Salomón
- Department of Natural Systems and Resources, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Ciudad Universitaria s/n, Madrid, Spain
| | - Dongsheng Yin
- Forestry Research Institute of Heilongjiang Province, Harbin, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, School of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Forest Ecosystem Management-Ministry of Education, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China
- State Forestry and Grassland Administration Engineering Technology Research Center of Korean Pine, Harbin, China
| | - Hailong Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, School of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China
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Abstract
Masting, or synchronous production of large seed crops, is widespread among plants. The predator satiation hypothesis states that masting evolved to overwhelm seed predators with an excess of food. Yet, this popular explanation faced few rigorous tests. We conducted a meta-analysis of studies that related the magnitude of seed production to the intensity of seed predation. Our results validate certain theoretical notions (e.g., that predator satiation is more effective at higher latitudes) but challenge others (e.g., that specialist and generalist consumers differ in the type of functional response to masting). We also found that masting is losing its ability to satiate consumers, probably because global warming affected masting patterns. This shift might considerably impair the reproduction of masting plants. Predator satiation is the most commonly tested hypothesis that explains the evolutionary advantages of masting. It proposes that masting benefits plant reproduction by reducing the proportion of seed crop that is consumed by predators. This hypothesis is widely accepted, but many theoretical notions about predator satiation have not been subjected to a robust evaluation. To address this issue, we conducted a meta-analysis of studies that quantified seed predation in relation to mast seeding. We found evidence of both numerical (starvation between mast years) and functional (satiation during mast years) response of consumers to masting. These two effects reinforced each other. Masting satiated invertebrate but not vertebrate seed predators. Satiation was more pronounced at higher, temperate, and boreal latitudes, perhaps because masting is more effective in reducing seed losses when plant communities are less diverse. The effectiveness of masting in satiating invertebrate consumers declined over time (1972 to 2018), probably reflecting the impact of climate change on the frequency and intensity of masting. If masting ceases to reduce seed losses, a crucial advantage of this reproductive strategy will be lost, and sustainability of many tree populations will decline.
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Pesendorfer MB, Ascoli D, Bogdziewicz M, Hacket-Pain A, Pearse IS, Vacchiano G. The ecology and evolution of synchronized reproduction in long-lived plants. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20200369. [PMID: 34657462 PMCID: PMC8520778 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Populations of many long-lived plants exhibit spatially synchronized seed production that varies extensively over time, so that seed production in some years is much higher than on average, while in others, it is much lower or absent. This phenomenon termed masting or mast seeding has important consequences for plant reproductive success, ecosystem dynamics and plant-human interactions. Inspired by recent advances in the field, this special issue presents a series of articles that advance the current understanding of the ecology and evolution of masting. To provide a broad overview, we reflect on the state-of-the-art of masting research in terms of underlying proximate mechanisms, ontogeny, adaptations, phylogeny and applications to conservation. While the mechanistic drivers and fitness consequences of masting have received most attention, the evolutionary history, ontogenetic trajectory and applications to plant-human interactions are poorly understood. With increased availability of long-term datasets across broader geographical and taxonomic scales, as well as advances in molecular approaches, we expect that many mysteries of masting will be solved soon. The increased understanding of this global phenomenon will provide the foundation for predictive modelling of seed crops, which will improve our ability to manage forests and agricultural fruit and nut crops in the Anthropocene. This article is part of the theme issue 'The ecology and evolution of synchronized seed production in plants'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario B. Pesendorfer
- Institute of Forest Ecology, Department of Forest and Soil Sciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, A-1180 Vienna, Austria
- Migratory Bird Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington, DC 20008, USA
| | - Davide Ascoli
- Department of Agricultural, Forestry and Food Sciences, University of Torino, 10095 Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Michał Bogdziewicz
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61-712 Poznań, Poland
- INRAE, LESSEM, University Grenoble Alpes, 38400 Saint-Martin-d'Hères, France
| | - Andrew Hacket-Pain
- Department of Geography and Planning, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
| | - Ian S. Pearse
- Fort Collins Science Center, US Geological Survey, Fort Collins, CO 80526, USA
| | - Giorgio Vacchiano
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
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Abstract
Although it has long been recognized that seed production by many forest trees varies greatly from year to year, masting (along with 'mast fruiting', 'mast seeding' and 'masting behaviour') as a concept referring to such variability is a relatively recent development. Here, I provide a brief history of masting research, highlighting some of the early contributions by foresters, zoologists and others that paved the way for the burgeoning number of studies currently being conducted by researchers around the world. Of particular current interest is work attempting to understand the proximate mechanisms, evolutionary drivers and community effects of this important ecological phenomenon as well as the ways that climate change may influence masting behaviour in the future. This article is part of the theme issue 'The ecology and evolution of synchronized seed production in plants'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter D Koenig
- Hastings Natural History Reservation, University of California Berkeley, Carmel Valley, CA 93924, USA.,Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
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Satake A, Kelly D. Studying the genetic basis of masting. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20210116. [PMID: 34657458 PMCID: PMC8520782 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms underlying mast seeding have traditionally been studied by collecting long-term observational data on seed crops and correlating seedfall with environmental variables. Significant progress in ecological genomics will improve our understanding of the evolution of masting by clarifying the genetic basis of masting traits and the role of natural selection in shaping those traits. Here, we summarize three important aspects in studying the evolution of masting at the genetic level: which traits govern masting, whether those traits are genetically regulated, and which taxa show wide variation in these traits. We then introduce recent studies on the molecular mechanisms of masting. Those studies measure seasonal changes in gene expression in natural conditions to quantify how multiple environmental factors combine to regulate floral initiation, which in many masting plant species is the single largest contributor to among-year variation in seed crops. We show that Fagaceae offers exceptional opportunities for evolutionary investigations because of its diversity at both the phenotypic and genetic levels and existing documented genome sequences. This article is part of the theme issue 'The ecology and evolution of synchronized seed production in plants'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Satake
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Dave Kelly
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
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Hacket-Pain A, Bogdziewicz M. Climate change and plant reproduction: trends and drivers of mast seeding change. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20200379. [PMID: 34657461 PMCID: PMC8520772 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate change is reshaping global vegetation through its impacts on plant mortality, but recruitment creates the next generation of plants and will determine the structure and composition of future communities. Recruitment depends on mean seed production, but also on the interannual variability and among-plant synchrony in seed production, the phenomenon known as mast seeding. Thus, predicting the long-term response of global vegetation dynamics to climate change requires understanding the response of masting to changing climate. Recently, data and methods have become available allowing the first assessments of long-term changes in masting. Reviewing the literature, we evaluate evidence for a fingerprint of climate change on mast seeding and discuss the drivers and impacts of these changes. We divide our discussion into the main characteristics of mast seeding: interannual variation, synchrony, temporal autocorrelation and mast frequency. Data indicate that masting patterns are changing but the direction of that change varies, likely reflecting the diversity of proximate factors underlying masting across taxa. Experiments to understand the proximate mechanisms underlying masting, in combination with the analysis of long-term datasets, will enable us to understand this observed variability in the response of masting. This will allow us to predict future shifts in masting patterns, and consequently ecosystem impacts of climate change via its impacts on masting. This article is part of the theme issue 'The ecology and evolution of synchronized seed production in plants'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Hacket-Pain
- Department of Geography and Planning, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZT, UK
| | - Michał Bogdziewicz
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Ulica Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, Poznań, 61‐614 Poland
- INRAE, LESSEM, University Grenoble Alpes, 2 rue de la Papeterie, BP 76, Saint‐Martin‐d'Hères, 38400 France
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Lev-Yadun S. Avoiding rather than resisting herbivore attacks is often the first line of plant defence. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
A common idea is that resisting or blocking herbivore attacks by structural, chemical and molecular means after they have commenced is the first line of plant defence. However, these are all secondary defences, operating only when all the various methods of avoiding attack have failed. The real first line of plant defence from herbivory and herbivore-transmitted pathogens is avoiding such attacks altogether. Several visual, chemical and ‘statistical’ methods (and commonly their combined effects) have been proposed to allow avoidance of herbivore attacks. The visual types are camouflage, masquerade, aposematic coloration of toxic or physically defended plants (including Müllerian/Batesian mimicry), undermining herbivorous insect camouflage, delayed greening, dazzle and trickery coloration, heterophylly that undermines host identification, leaf movements, and signalling that colourful autumn leaves are soon to be shed. The mimicry types include: herbivore damage, insects and other animals, fungal infestation, dead/dry leaves or branches, animal droppings, and stones and soil. Olfactory-based tactics include odour aposematism by poisonous plants, various repelling volatiles, mimicry of faeces and carrion odours, and mimicry of aphid alarm pheromones. The ‘statistical’ methods are mast fruiting, flowering only once in many years and being rare. In addition to the theoretical aspects, understanding these mechanisms may have considerable potential for agricultural or forestry applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa – Oranim, Tivon 36006, Israel
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Kelly D. Mast seeding: the devil (and the delight) is in the detail. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 229:1829-1831. [PMID: 33296512 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dave Kelly
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand
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10
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Go forth and replicate. NATURE PLANTS 2020; 6:901. [PMID: 32782409 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-020-00759-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
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Fernández-Martínez M, Sardans J, Sayol F, LaMontagne JM, Bogdziewicz M, Collalti A, Hacket-Pain A, Vacchiano G, Espelta JM, Peñuelas J, Janssens IA. Reply to: Nutrient scarcity cannot cause mast seeding. NATURE PLANTS 2020; 6:763-765. [PMID: 32572211 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-020-0703-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M Fernández-Martínez
- Research Group PLECO (Plants and Ecosystems), Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - J Sardans
- Global Ecology Unit, CREAF-CSIC-UAB, Barcelona, Spain
- CREAF, Barcelona, Spain
| | - F Sayol
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - J M LaMontagne
- Department of Biological Sciences, DePaul University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - M Bogdziewicz
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland
| | - A Collalti
- Institute for Agriculture and Forestry Systems in the Mediterranean, National Research Council of Italy (CNR-ISAFOM), Perugia, Italy
- Department of Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest Systems, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - A Hacket-Pain
- Department of Geography and Planning, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | | | | | - J Peñuelas
- Global Ecology Unit, CREAF-CSIC-UAB, Barcelona, Spain
- CREAF, Barcelona, Spain
| | - I A Janssens
- Research Group PLECO (Plants and Ecosystems), Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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