A nanovaccine for antigen self-presentation and immunosuppression reversal as a personalized cancer immunotherapy strategy

Antigen self-presenting dendrosomes swallowing nanovaccines boost antigens and STING agonists codelivery for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer vaccines show promise by eliciting tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) responses. Efficient cytosolic co-delivery of antigens and adjuvants to dendritic cells (DCs) is crucial for vaccines to induce anti-tumor immunity. However, peptide- or nucleic acid-based biomolecules like tumor antigens and STING agonist cyclic-di-GMP (cdGMP) are prone to endosomal degradation, resulting in low cytosolic delivery and CTL response rates. Cationic nanocarriers can improve cytosolic delivery, but their positive charges induce off-target effects. Here, we develop cationic poly(ester amide) based nanoparticles co-loaded with antigens and adjuvant cdGMP (NP(cG, OVA)) for efficient cytosolic delivery and swallow them within antigen self-presenting DCs-derived dendrosomes (ODs) for lymph nodes (LNs) homing. The constructed dendrosomes swallowing nanovaccines ODs/NP(cG, OVA) demonstrated significantly reduced liver accumulation and enhanced LNs and DCs targeting compared to NP(cG, OVA). ODs/NP(cG, OVA) effectively cross-dressed the antigen epitopes on the shell to DCs and facilitated internalization of NP(cG, OVA), realizing DCs cytosolic co-delivery of antigens and adjuvants, thereby promoting antigen presentation, maturation and inflammatory cytokines secretion of DCs. Consequently, DCs stimulated by ODs/NP(cG, OVA) effectively induced activation, proliferation, and differentiation of antigen-specific CTLs that provided robust immune protection against tumor invasion. This work presents a powerful vaccine strategy for cancer immunotherapy.

Emerging nanomedicines for macrophage-mediated cancer therapy

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) contribute to tumor progression by promoting angiogenesis, remodeling the tumor extracellular matrix, inducing tumor invasion and metastasis, as well as immune evasion. Due to the high plasticity of TAMs, they can polarize into different phenotypes with distinct functions, which are primarily categorized as the pro-inflammatory, anti-tumor M1 type, and the anti-inflammatory, pro-tumor M2 type. Notably, anti-tumor macrophages not only directly phagocytize tumor cells, but also present tumor-specific antigens and activate adaptive immunity. Therefore, targeted regulation of TAMs to unleash their potential anti-tumor capabilities is crucial for improving the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. Nanomedicine serves as a promising vehicle and can inherently interact with TAMs, hence, emerging as a new paradigm in cancer immunotherapy. Due to their controllable structures and properties, nanomedicines offer a plethora of advantages over conventional drugs, thus enhancing the balance between efficacy and toxicity. In this review, we provide an overview of the hallmarks of TAMs and discuss nanomedicines for targeting TAMs with a focus on inhibiting recruitment, depleting and reprogramming TAMs, enhancing phagocytosis, engineering macrophages, as well as targeting TAMs for tumor imaging. We also discuss the challenges and clinical potentials of nanomedicines for targeting TAMs, aiming to advance the exploitation of nanomedicine for cancer immunotherapy.

Recent progress in cancer vaccines and nanovaccines

Vaccine science, nanotechnology, and immunotherapy are at the forefront of cancer treatment strategies, each offering significant potential for enhancing tumor-specific immunity and establishing long-lasting immune memory to prevent tumor recurrence. Despite the promise of these personalized and precision-based anti-cancer approaches, challenges such as immunosuppression, suboptimal immune activation, and T-cell exhaustion continue to hinder their effectiveness. The limited clinical success of cancer vaccines often stems from difficulties in identifying effective antigens, efficiently targeting immune cells, lymphoid organs, and the tumor microenvironment, overcoming immune evasion, enhancing immunogenicity, and avoiding lysosomal degradation. However, numerous studies have demonstrated that integrating nanotechnology with immunotherapeutic strategies in vaccine development can overcome these challenges, leading to potent antitumor immune responses and significant progress in the field. This review highlights the critical components of cancer vaccine and nanovaccine strategies for immunomodulatory antitumor therapy. It covers general vaccine strategies, types of vaccines, antigen forms, nanovaccine platforms, challenges faced, potential solutions, and key findings from preclinical and clinical studies, along with future perspectives. To fully unlock the potential of cancer vaccines and nanovaccines, precise immunological monitoring during early-phase trials is essential. This approach will help identify and address obstacles, ultimately expanding the available options for patients who are resistant to conventional cancer immunotherapies.

Reprogramming Dysfunctional Dendritic Cells by a Versatile Catalytic Dual Oxide Antigen-Captured Nanosponge for Remotely Enhancing Lung Metastasis Immunotherapy

Dendritic cells (DCs) play a crucial role in initiating antitumor immune responses. However, in the tumor environment, dendritic cells often exhibit impaired antigen presentation and adopt an immunosuppressive phenotype, which hinders their function and reduces their ability to efficiently present antigens. Here, a dual catalytic oxide nanosponge (DON) doubling as a remotely boosted catalyst and an inducer of programming DCs to program immune therapy is reported. Intravenous delivery of DON enhances tumor accumulation via the marginated target. At the tumor site, DON incorporates cerium oxide nanozyme (CeO2)-coated iron oxide nanocubes as a peroxide mimicry in cancer cells, promoting sustained ROS generation and depleting intracellular glutathione, i.e., chemodynamic therapy (CDT). Upon high-frequency magnetic field (HFMF) irradiation, CDT accelerates the decomposition of H2O2 and the subsequent production of more reactive oxygen species, known as Kelvin's force laws, which promote the cycle between Fe3+/Fe2+ and Ce3+/Ce4+ in a sustainable active surface. HFMF-boosted catalytic DON promotes tumors to release tumor-associated antigens, including neoantigens and damage-associated molecular patterns. Then, the porous DON acts as an antigen transporter to deliver autologous tumor-associated antigens to program DCs, resulting in sustained immune stimulation. Catalytic DON combined with the immune checkpoint inhibitor (anti-PD1) in lung metastases suppresses tumors and improves survival over 40 days.

Light-activated photosensitizer/quercetin co-loaded extracellular vesicles for precise oral squamous cell carcinoma therapy

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common subtype of head and neck malignancies, characterized by a five-year survival rate that remains persistently below 50%, indicative of limited progress in therapeutic interventions. There is an urgent imperative to develop innovative therapeutic strategies, warranting the investigation of advanced treatment modalities. Nanocarriers offer a promising avenue by significantly enhancing drug properties and pharmacokinetics. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are naturally occurring nanocarriers produced by cells and have become a focal point in drug delivery research. Quercetin, one of the most abundant dietary flavonoids, exhibits potent anticancer effects. However, its pharmaceutical application is hampered by poor water solubility, instability under physiological conditions, and low bioavailability. To overcome these obstacles, we propose using bio-derived EVs as carriers to co-encapsulate quercetin with the photosensitizer chlorin e6. This strategy leverages the intrinsic targeting capabilities of EVs for precise drug delivery to tumors, along with light-activated drug release, enabling rapid quercetin release under near-infrared light, effectively inhibiting cellular proliferation and inducing apoptosis in tumor cells. In vivo studies demonstrated that drug-loaded EVs exhibited robust tumor-targeting efficacy, resulting in effective and selective tumor ablation upon photoactivation in mice bearing subcutaneous MOC2 tumors.

Potential and development of cellular vesicle vaccines in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer vaccines are promising as an effective means of stimulating the immune system to clear tumors as well as to establish immune surveillance. In this paper, we discuss the main platforms and current status of cancer vaccines and propose a new cancer vaccine platform, the cytosolic vesicle vaccine. This vaccine has a unique structure that can integrate antigen and adjuvant carriers to improve the delivery efficiency and immune activation ability, which brings new ideas for cancer vaccine design. Tumor exosomes carry antigens and MHC-peptide complexes, which can provide tumor antigens to antigen-processing cells and increase the chances of recognition of tumor antigens by immune cells. DEVs play a role in amplifying the immune response by acting as carriers for the dissemination of antigenic substances in dendritic cells. OMVs, with their natural adjuvant properties, are one of the advantages for the preparation of antitumor vaccines. This paper presents the advantages of these three bacteria/extracellular vesicles as cancer vaccines and discusses the potential applications of functionally modified extracellular vesicles as cancer vaccines after cellular engineering or genetic engineering, as well as current clinical trials of extracellular vesicle vaccines. In summary, extracellular vesicle vaccines are a promising direction for cancer vaccine research.

Cancer vaccines: platforms and current progress

Cancer vaccines, crucial in the immunotherapeutic landscape, are bifurcated into preventive and therapeutic types, both integral to combating oncogenesis. Preventive cancer vaccines, like those against HPV and HBV, reduce the incidence of virus-associated cancers, while therapeutic cancer vaccines aim to activate dendritic cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes for durable anti-tumor immunity. Recent advancements in vaccine platforms, such as synthetic peptides, mRNA, DNA, cellular, and nano-vaccines, have enhanced antigen presentation and immune activation. Despite the US Food and Drug Administration approval for several vaccines, the full therapeutic potential remains unrealized due to challenges such as antigen selection, tumor-mediated immunosuppression, and optimization of delivery systems. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the aims and implications of preventive and therapeutic cancer vaccine, the innovative discovery of neoantigens enhancing vaccine specificity, and the latest strides in vaccine delivery platforms. It also critically evaluates the role of adjuvants in enhancing immunogenicity and mitigating the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. The review further examines the synergistic potential of combining cancer vaccines with other therapies, such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immune checkpoint inhibitors, to improve therapeutic outcomes. Overcoming barriers such as effective antigen identification, immunosuppressive microenvironments, and adverse effects is critical for advancing vaccine development. By addressing these challenges, cancer vaccines can offer significant improvements in patient outcomes and broaden the scope of personalized cancer immunotherapy.

Trigger inducible tertiary lymphoid structure formation using covalent organic frameworks for cancer immunotherapy

The discovery of tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS) within tumor tissues provides a promising avenue to promote the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. Yet, the lack of effective strategies to induce TLS formation poses a substantial obstacle. Thus, the exploration of potential inducers for TLS formation is of great interest but remains challenging. Here, inspired by the mechanism of artificially cultivated pearls, a covalent organic framework (COF) is employed to induce TLS formation. Single-cell sequencing analysis reveals that this is achieved by promotion of cytokine hypersecretion, which facilitates the maturation, proliferation, and migration of T and B cells, critical for triggering TLS formation. Furthermore, the efficacy of COF-mediated phototherapy in inducing TLS formation is validated in both the MC38 and 4MOSC1 female tumor models. Notably, a strong synergistic effect between COF-mediated phototherapy and αCTLA-4 is observed, resulting in the effective eradication of both primary and distant tumors, while also inhibiting tumor recurrence.

Inhalable nanovesicles loaded with a STING agonist enhance CAR-T cell activity against solid tumors in the lung

Suppression of chimeric antigen receptor-modified T (CAR-T) cells by the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment remains a major barrier to their efficacy against solid tumors. To address this, we develop an anti-PD-L1-expressing nanovesicle loaded with the STING agonist cGAMP (aPD-L1 NVs@cGAMP) to remodel the tumor microenvironment and thereby enhance CAR-T cell activity. Following pulmonary delivery, the nanovesicles rapidly accumulate in the lung and selectively deliver STING agonists to PD-L1-overexpressing cells via the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction. This targeted delivery effectively avoids the systemic inflammation and poor cellular uptake that plague free STING agonists. Internalized STING agonists trigger STING signaling and induce interferon responses, which diminish immunosuppressive cell populations such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells in the tumor microenvironment and promote CAR-T cell infiltration. Importantly, the anti-PD-L1 single chain variable fragment on the nanovesicle surface blocks PD-L1 upregulation induced by STING agonists and prevents CAR-T cell exhaustion. In both orthotopic lung cancer and lung metastasis model, combined therapy with CAR-T cells and aPD-L1 NVs@cGAMP potently inhibits tumor growth and prevents recurrence. Therefore, aPD-L1 NVs@cGAMP is expected to serve as an effective CAR-T cell enhancer to improve the efficacy of CAR-T cells against solid tumors.

Oncolytic virus encoding 4-1BBL and IL15 enhances the efficacy of tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte adoptive therapy in HCC

Previous studies have found that oncolytic virus (OVs) can improve the efficacy of TIL adoptive therapy in oral cancer, colon cancer, and pancreatic cancer. However, the curative effect in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is still unclear. Therefore, this study aims to explore the therapeutic effect and mechanism of OVs encoding 4-1BBL and IL15 (OV-4-1BBL/IL15) combined with TIL adoptive therapy on HCC. In this study, the role and immunological mechanism of armed OVs combined with TILs were evaluated by flow cytometry and ELISA in patient-derived xenograft and syngeneic mouse tumor models. Co-culturing with TILs can up-regulate the expression of antigen-presenting cell (APC) markers on the surface of OV-infected primary HCC cells, and promote the specific activation ability and tumor-killing ability of TILs. OV-4-1BBL/IL15 combined with TIL adoptive therapy could induce tumor volume reduction and anti-tumor immune memory in patient-derived xenograft and syngeneic mouse tumor models. Furthermore, OV combined with TIL adoptive therapy can endow tumor cells with aAPC characteristics, activate T cells at the same time, and reprogram tumor macrophages into anti-tumor phenotype. OV-4-1BBL/IL15 can stimulate the anti-tumor potential of TIL therapy in HCC, and possess broad clinical application prospects.

Advancing Cancer Vaccines with Radionuclide Imaging

Cancer vaccines are emerged as a beacon of hope in the fight against cancer. However, the lack of effective methods to directly observe their in vivo behavior and monitor therapeutic responses hinders their translation into clinical settings. Radionuclide imaging allows for non-invasive and real-time visualization of vaccine biodistribution and immunological response, offering valuable insights into the effectiveness of cancer vaccines and aiding in patient stratification. In this review, the latest advances and potential applications of radionuclide imaging in cancer vaccines are discussed, with a specific focus on strategies for visualizing the spatiotemporal distribution of vaccines in vivo and monitoring treatment efficacy. The challenges and considerations for implementing these techniques in clinical practice are also highlighted, aiming to inform and guide future research in this field.

Exosomes, their sources, and possible uses in cancer therapy in the era of personalized medicine

Despite significant advances in immunotherapy, its efficacy in solid tumors remains limited. Exosomes, a primary type of extracellular vesicles, can transport diverse intracellular molecules to nearby or distant cells and organs, facilitating numerous biological functions. Research has shown that exosomes have the dual ability to both activate and suppress the immune system. Their potential as anticancer vaccines arise from the capacity to carry antigens and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Exosomes derived from blood, saliva, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid serve as promising biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Recent advancements in exosome-based therapy have highlighted its utility in drug delivery and immunotherapy. This review examines the composition and sources of exosomes within the immune microenvironment of solid tumors and delves into the mechanisms and pathways through which exosomes impact immunotherapy. We further explore the clinical potential of engineered exosomes and exosome vaccines in solid tumor immunotherapy. These insights may pave the way for exosome-based strategies in cancer diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, enhancing the effectiveness of immunotherapy for solid tumors.

A comprehensive review of immune checkpoint inhibitors for cancer treatment

Immunology-based therapies are emerging as an effective cancer treatment, using the body's immune system to target tumors. Immune checkpoints, which regulate immune responses to prevent tissue damage and autoimmunity, are often exploited by cancer cells to avoid destruction. The discovery of checkpoint proteins like PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4 was pivotal in developing cancer immunotherapy. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have shown great success, with FDA-approved drugs like PD-1 inhibitors (Nivolumab, Pembrolizumab, Cemiplimab), PD-L1 inhibitors (Atezolizumab, Durvalumab, Avelumab), and CTLA-4 inhibitors (Ipilimumab, Tremelimumab), alongside LAG-3 inhibitor Relatlimab. Research continues on new checkpoints like TIM-3, VISTA, B7-H3, BTLA, and TIGIT. Biomarkers like PDL-1 expression, tumor mutation burden, interferon-γ presence, microbiome composition, and extracellular matrix characteristics play a crucial role in predicting responses to immunotherapy with checkpoint inhibitors. Despite their effectiveness, not all patients experience the same level of benefit, and organ-specific immune-related adverse events (irAEs) such as rash or itching, colitis, diarrhea, hyperthyroidism, and hypothyroidism may occur. Given the rapid advancements in this field and the variability in patient outcomes, there is an urgent need for a comprehensive review that consolidates the latest findings on immune checkpoint inhibitors, covering their clinical status, biomarkers, resistance mechanisms, strategies to overcome resistance, and associated adverse effects. This review aims to fill this gap by providing an analysis of the current clinical status of ICIs, emerging biomarkers, mechanisms of resistance, strategies to enhance therapeutic efficacy, and assessment of adverse effects. This review is crucial to furthering our understanding of ICIs and optimizing their application in cancer therapy.

Advances in molecular imaging and targeted therapeutics for lymph node metastasis in cancer: a comprehensive review

Lymph node metastasis is a critical indicator of cancer progression, profoundly affecting diagnosis, staging, and treatment decisions. This review article delves into the recent advancements in molecular imaging techniques for lymph nodes, which are pivotal for the early detection and staging of cancer. It provides detailed insights into how these techniques are used to visualize and quantify metastatic cancer cells, resident immune cells, and other molecular markers within lymph nodes. Furthermore, the review highlights the development of innovative, lymph node-targeted therapeutic strategies, which represent a significant shift towards more precise and effective cancer treatments. By examining cutting-edge research and emerging technologies, this review offers a comprehensive overview of the current and potential impact of lymph node-centric approaches on cancer diagnosis, staging, and therapy. Through its exploration of these topics, the review aims to illuminate the increasingly sophisticated landscape of cancer management strategies focused on lymph node assessment and intervention.

Biomimetic Dendritic Cell-Based Nanovaccines for Reprogramming the Immune Microenvironment to Boost Tumor Immunotherapy

Although dendritic cell (DC)-mediated immunotherapies are effective options for immunotherapy, traditional DC vaccines are hampered by a variety of drawbacks such as insufficient antigen delivery, weak lymph node homing, and the risk of living cell transfusion. To address the above-mentioned issues, we developed a personalized DC-mimicking nanovaccine (HybridDC) that enhances antigen presentation and elicits effective antitumor immunity. The biomimetic nanovaccine contains cell membranes derived from genetically engineered DCs, and several cellular components are simultaneously anchored onto these membranes, including CC-chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7), tumor-associated antigenic (TAA) peptide/tumor-derived exosome (TEX), and relevant costimulatory molecules. Compared with previous vaccines, the HybridDC vaccine showed an increased ability to target lymphoid tissues and reshape the immune landscape in the tumor milieu. HybridDC demonstrated significant therapeutic and prophylactic efficacy in poorly immunogenic, orthotopic models of glioma. Furthermore, the HybridDC vaccine potentiates the therapeutic efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy, providing a potential combination strategy to maximize the efficacy of ICB. Specifically, HybridDC can induce long-term protective immunity in memory T cells. Overall, the HybridDC vaccine is a promising platform for personalized cancer vaccines and may offer a combinational modality to improve current immunotherapy.

Biomimetic Nanovesicles Synergize with Short-Term Fasting for Enhanced Chemotherapy of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive and lethal subtype of breast cancer among women. Chemotherapy acts as the standard regimen for TNBC treatment but suffers from limited drug accumulation in tumor regions and undesired side effects. Herein, we developed a synergistic strategy by combining a red blood cell (RBC) membrane-liposome hybrid nanovesicle with short-term fasting (STF) for improved chemotherapy of TNBC. The biomimetic nanovesicles exhibited reduced phagocytosis by macrophages while displaying a significant increase in tumor cell uptake through caveolae/raft-mediated endocytosis under nutrient-deprivation conditions. Importantly, drug-loaded nanovesicles and STF treatment synergistically increased the cytotoxicity of tumor cells by inhibiting their cell cycles and aerobic glycolysis as well as amplifying the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and autophagosomes generation. In the STF-treated mice, biomimetic nanovesicles greatly improved the antitumor efficacy at a lower drug dosage and inhibited the undesired metastasis of TNBC. Overall, we demonstrated that biomimetic nanovesicles synergizing with STF therapy serve as a promising therapeutic strategy for enhanced chemotherapy of malignant TNBC.

Biomimetic Nanovaccines Restore Immunosuppressive Tumor Antigen-Presenting Cells via the Saposin-Feeding Strategy

Cancer cell membrane-derived biomimetic nanovaccines have shown tremendous potential in cancer immunotherapy. However, their efficacy is restricted by the insufficient cross-presentation of cell membrane-associated antigens. Saposins (SAs), which are vital for membrane vesicle disintegration and cell membrane-associated antigen presentation, are severely deficient in the antigen-presenting cells (APCs) within tumors. Herein, we propose a complementary strategy for increasing the efficacy of biomimetic nanovaccines via the use of SAs. Biomimetic nanovaccines were designed using cancer cell membrane shells to provide a comprehensive array of tumor-associated antigens and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive nanoparticle cores that allowed the codelivery of cytosine-guanine dinucleotides (CpGs) and SAs. The biomimetic nanovaccines were ROS-responsive and highly internalized by APCs, which enabled the release of CpGs and SAs in the endo/lysosomes of APCs. Furthermore, biomimetic nanovaccines increased the activation of immunosuppressive APCs and enhanced T-cell priming by delivering SAs to the APCs. Consequently, biomimetic nanovaccines loaded with SAs not only suppressed tumor growth but also exhibited excellent therapeutic effects in combination with immune checkpoint blockade strategies. Overall, our study provides insights into the development of enhanced biomimetic nanovaccines via integrating SAs and offers a promising strategy for highly effective cancer immunotherapy.

Innovative utilization of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles in precision cancer therapy

Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) have recently emerged as a promising platform for cancer therapy. By encapsulating therapeutic agents within a cell membrane-derived coating, these nanoparticles combine the advantages of synthetic nanoparticles and natural cell membranes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advancements in utilizing CMNPs as effective drug delivery vehicles for cancer therapy. The synthesis and fabrication methods of CMNPs are comprehensively discussed. Various techniques, such as extrusion, sonication, and self-assembly, are employed to coat synthetic nanoparticles with cell membranes derived from different cell types. The cell membrane coating enables biocompatibility, reducing the risk of an immune response and enhancing the stability of the nanoparticles in the bloodstream. Moreover, functionalization strategies for CMNPs, primarily chemical modification, genetic engineering, and external stimuli, are highlighted. The presence of specific cell surface markers on the coated membrane allows targeted drug delivery to cancer cells and maximizes therapeutic efficacy. Preclinical studies utilizing CMNPs for cancer therapy demonstrated the successful delivery of various therapeutic agents, such as chemotherapeutic drugs, nucleic acids, and immunotherapeutic agents, using CMNPs. Furthermore, the article explores the future directions and challenges of this technology while offering insights into its clinical potential.

Hydrogel activation of Mincle receptors for tumor cell processing: A novel approach in cancer immunotherapy

An obstacle in current tumor immunotherapies lies in the challenge of achieving sustained and tumor-targeting T cell immunity, impeded by the limited antigen processing and cross-presentation of tumor antigens. Here, we propose a hydrogel-based multicellular immune factory within the body that autonomously converts tumor cells into an antitumor vaccine. Within the body, the scaffold, formed by a calcium-containing chitosan hydrogel complex (ChitoCa) entraps tumor cells and attracts immune cells to establish a durable and multicellular microenvironment. Within this context, tumor cells are completely eliminated by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and processed for cross-antigen presentation. The regulatory mechanism relies on the Mincle receptor, a cell-phagocytosis-inducing C-type lectin receptor specifically activated on ChitoCa-recruited APCs, which serves as a recognition synapse, facilitating a tenfold increase in tumor cell engulfment and subsequent elimination. The ChitoCa-induced tumor cell processing further promotes the cross-presentation of tumor antigens to prime protective CD8+ T cell responses. Therefore, the ChitoCa treatment establishes an immune niche within the tumor microenvironment, resulting in effective tumor regression either used alone or in combination with other immunotherapies. This hydrogel-induced immune factory establishes a functional organ-like multicellular colony for tumor-specific immunotherapy, paving the way for innovative strategies in cancer treatment.

STING-activating dendritic cell-targeted nanovaccines that evoke potent antigen cross-presentation for cancer immunotherapy

Recently, nanovaccine-based immunotherapy has been robustly investigated due to its potential in governing the immune response and generating long-term protective immunity. However, the presentation of a tumor peptide-major histocompatibility complex to T lymphocytes is still a challenge that needs to be addressed for eliciting potent antitumor immunity. Type 1 conventional dendritic cell (cDC1) subset is of particular interest due to its pivotal contribution in the cross-presentation of exogenous antigens to CD8+ T cells. Here, the DC-derived nanovaccine (denoted as Si9GM) selectively targets cDC1s with marginal loss of premature antigen release for effective stimulator of interferon genes (STING)-mediated antigen cross-presentation. Bone marrow dendritic cell (BMDC)-derived membranes, conjugated to cDC1-specific antibody (αCLEC9A) and binding to tumor peptide (OVA257-264), are coated onto dendrimer-like polyethylenimine (PEI)-grafted silica nanoparticles. Distinct molecular weight-cargos (αCLEC9A-OVA257-264 conjugates and 2'3'-cGAMP STING agonists) are loaded in hierarchical center-radial pores that enables lysosome escape for potent antigen-cross presentation and activates interferon type I, respectively. Impressively, Si9GM vaccination leads to the upregulation of cytotoxic T cells, a reduction in tumor regulatory T cells (Tregs), M1/M2 macrophage polarization, and immune response that synergizes with αPD-1 immune checkpoint blockade. This nanovaccine fulfills a dual role for both direct T cell activation as an artificial antigen-presenting cell and DC subset maturation, indicating its utility in clinical therapy and precision medicine.

Personalized nanovaccines for treating solid cancer metastases

Cancer vaccines have garnered attention as a potential treatment for cancer metastases. Nevertheless, the clinical response rate to vaccines remains < 30%. Nanoparticles stabilize vaccines and improve antigen recognition and presentation, resulting in high tumor penetration or accumulation, effective co-distribution of drugs to the secondary lymphatic system, and adaptable antigen or adjuvant administration. Such vaccine-like nanomedicines have the ability to eradicate the primary tumors as well as to prevent or eliminate metastases. This review examines state-of-the-art nanocarriers developed to deliver tumor vaccines to metastases, including synthetic, semi-biogenic, and biogenic nanosystems. Moreover, it highlights the physical and pharmacological properties that enhance their anti-metastasis efficiency. This review also addresses the combination of nanovaccines with cancer immunotherapy to target various steps in the metastatic cascade, drawing insights from preclinical and clinical studies. The review concludes with a critical analysis of the challenges and frameworks linked to the clinical translation of cancer nanovaccines.

Remolding the tumor microenvironment by bacteria augments adoptive T cell therapy in advanced-stage solid tumors

The intricate tumor microenvironment presents formidable obstacles to the efficacy of adoptive T cell therapy in the management of solid tumors by limiting the infiltration and inducing exhaustion of the transferred T cells. Here, we developed a bacterial-based adjuvant approach that augments the efficacy of adoptive T-cell therapy for solid tumor treatment. Our study reveals that intratumor injection of E. coli MG1655 normalizes tumor vasculatures and reprograms tumor-associated macrophages into M1 phenotype that produce abundant CCL5, together facilitating tumor infiltration of adoptively transferred T cells. The depletion of tumor-associated macrophages or CCL5 neutralization in vivo leads to the significantly decreased solid tumor infiltration of adoptive T cells in the presence of bacteriotherapy. This combinatorial therapy, consisting of E. coli adjuvant and adoptive T-cell therapy, effectively eradicates early-stage melanoma and inhibits the progression of pancreatic tumors. Notably, this dual strategy also strengthened the distal tumor control capabilities of adoptive T-cell therapy through the induction of in situ tumor vaccination. This dual therapeutic approach involving bacterial therapy targeting the interior of solid tumors and adoptive T-cell therapy attacking the tumor periphery exhibits potent therapeutic efficacy in achieving the eradication of advanced-stage tumors, including melanoma and hepatocellular carcinoma, by converging attacks from both inside and outside the tumor tissues.

Synthetic and biological nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer is becoming the main public health problem globally. Conventional chemotherapy approaches are slowly being replaced or complemented by new therapies that avoid the loss of healthy tissue, limit off-targets, and eradicate cancer cells. Immunotherapy is nowadays an important strategy for cancer treatment, that uses the host's anti-tumor response by activating the immune system and increasing the effector cell number, while, minimizing cancer's immune-suppressor mechanisms. Its efficacy is still limited by poor therapeutic targeting, low immunogenicity, antigen presentation deficiency, impaired T-cell trafficking and infiltration, heterogeneous microenvironment, multiple immune checkpoints and unwanted side effects, which could benefit from improved delivery systems, able to release immunotherapeutic agents to tumor microenvironment and immune cells. Nanoparticles (NPs) for immunotherapy (Nano-IT), have a huge potential to solve these limitations. Natural and/or synthetic, targeted and/or stimuli-responsive nanoparticles can be used to deliver immunotherapeutic agents in their native conformations to the site of interest to enhance their antitumor activity. They can also be used as co-adjuvants that enhance the activity of IT effector cells. These nanoparticles can be engineered in the natural context of cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) or exosomes or can be fully synthetic. In this review, a detailed SWOT analysis is done through the comparison of engineered-synthetic and naturaly-derived nanoparticles in terms of their current and future use in cancer immunotherapy.

Inflammasome-Activating Nanovaccine for Cancer Immunotherapy

A range of advanced nanovaccines (NV) combined with immunotherapies has recently emerged for treating malignant tumors and has demonstrated promising tumor-suppressive effects. Nevertheless, their effectiveness is often limited by immunosuppression within the tumor microenvironment. To overcome this challenge, new approaches for NV development are required to improve antigen cross-presentation and to remodel the tumor microenvironment. In this issue of Cancer Research, Zhou and colleagues have developed a photo-enhanceable inflammasome-activating nanovaccine (PIN) designed for precise, in situ delivery of a tumor antigen and a hydrophobic small molecule that activates the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. Near infrared light exposure enables the accumulation of PINs at tumor sites by inducing a photo-triggered charge reversal in the BODIPY-modified PAMAM nanocarrier. Systemic administration of PINs resulted in effective intratumoral activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and antigen cross-presentation in antigen-presenting cells upon light exposure, leading to enhanced immune responses through increased proinflammatory cytokine production without significant systemic toxicity. Importantly, PINs also enhanced the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade and promoted the development of long-term immune memory in mouse models of melanoma and hepatocellular carcinoma. Overall, inflammasome-activating NVs represent a cancer immunotherapy strategy by harnessing the innate immune system to achieve robust responses against tumors. Ongoing research and development are crucial to addressing current limitations and advancing this innovative technology toward clinical application. See related article by Zhou et al., p. 3834.

Multifunctional Nanomaterials Mediate Cholesterol Depletion for Cancer Treatment

Cholesterol is an essential membrane component, and the metabolites from cholesterol play important biological functions to intricately support cancer progression and dampen immune responses. Preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated the role of cholesterol metabolism regulation on inhibiting tumor growth, remodeling the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), and enhancing anti-tumor immunity. In this minireview, we discuss complex cholesterol metabolism in tumors, its important role in cancer progression, and its influences on immune cells in the TME. We provide an overview of recent advances in cancer treatment through regulating cholesterol metabolism. We discuss the design of cholesterol-altering multifunctional nanomaterials to regulate oxidative stress, modulate immune checkpoints, manipulate mechanical stress responses, and alter cholesterol metabolic pathways. Additionally, we examine the interactions between cholesterol metabolism regulation and established cancer treatments with the aim of identifying efficient strategies to disrupt cholesterol metabolism and synergistic combination therapies for effective cancer treatment.

Anti-CTLA-4 antibody self-presented dendritic cell nanovesicles boost the immunotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma after microwave ablation

Microwave ablation (MWA) is a frequently adopted regional therapy for treating hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in clinic. However, incomplete microwave ablation (IMWA) is often inevitable due to the restraint of ablating large tumors or tumors in special locations, resulting in a high recurrence rate of HCC. Moreover, the most promising immune checkpoint blockade (ICB)-based immunotherapy is raising hindered by the toxicity and insufficient immune response. To overcome these barriers, we conjugate small nanovesicle (smDV)-derived from matured dendritic cells (mDCs) with anti-CTLA-4 antibody (smDV-aCTLA-4) using a metabolic tagging technology, which could trigger the infiltration of cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) and adopted tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) in residual HCC after IMWA. In HCC microenvironment, the administration of smDV-aCTLA-4 could promote antigen presentation and immune checkpoint suppression to activate CTLs and improve the safety of anti-CTLA-4 antibody. Moreover, the anti-tumor efficacy of CTLs elicited by smDV-aCTLA-4 could also be further enhanced by anti-programmed death 1 (aPD-1) antibody. In addition, compared to the adoptive TILs therapy, the treatment using smDV-aCTLA-4-bonded TILs (smDV-aCTLA-4@TILs) could promote the proliferation and infiltration of cytotoxic TILs in residual HCC after IMWA. Our results clearly evidenced the potency of a new type of engineered DC nanovesicles in reducing HCC recurrence after IMWA.

Mechanisms of extracellular vesicle uptake and implications for the design of cancer therapeutics

The translation of pre-clinical anti-cancer therapies to regulatory approval has been promising, but slower than hoped. While innovative and effective treatments continue to achieve or seek approval, setbacks are often attributed to a lack of efficacy, failure to achieve clinical endpoints, and dose-limiting toxicities. Successful efforts have been characterized by the development of therapeutics designed to specifically deliver optimal and effective dosing to tumour cells while minimizing off-target toxicity. Much effort has been devoted to the rational design and application of synthetic nanoparticles to serve as targeted therapeutic delivery vehicles. Several challenges to the successful application of this modality as delivery vehicles include the induction of a protracted immune response that results in their rapid systemic clearance, manufacturing cost, lack of stability, and their biocompatibility. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous class of endogenous biologically produced lipid bilayer nanoparticles that mediate intercellular communication by carrying bioactive macromolecules capable of modifying cellular phenotypes to local and distant cells. By genetic, chemical, or metabolic methods, extracellular vesicles (EVs) can be engineered to display targeting moieties on their surface while transporting specific cargo to modulate pathological processes following uptake by target cell populations. This review will survey the types of EVs, their composition and cargoes, strategies employed to increase their targeting, uptake, and cargo release, and their potential as targeted anti-cancer therapeutic delivery vehicles.

New avenues for cancer immunotherapy: Cell-mediated drug delivery systems

Cancer research has become increasingly complex over the past few decades as knowledge of the heterogeneity of cancer cells, their proliferative ability, and their tumor microenvironments has become available. Although conventional therapies remain the most compelling option for cancer treatment to date, immunotherapy is a promising way to harness natural immune defenses to target and kill cancer cells. Cell-mediated drug delivery systems (CDDSs) have been an active line of research for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy and specificity of cancer immunotherapy. These systems can be tailored to different types of immune cells, allowing immune evasion and accumulation in the tumor microenvironment. By enabling the targeted delivery of therapeutic agents such as immune stimulants, cytokines, antibodies, and antigens, CDDSs have improved the survival of some patients with cancer. This review summarizes the research status of CDDSs, with a focus on their underlying mechanisms of action, biology, and clinical applications. We also discuss opportunities and challenges for implementation of CDDSs into mainstream cancer immunotherapy.

Exosome-based immunotherapy as an innovative therapeutic approach in melanoma

The malignant form of melanoma is one of the deadliest human cancers that accounts for almost all of the skin tumor-related fatalities in its later stages. Achieving an exhaustive understanding of reliable cancer-specific markers and molecular pathways can provide numerous practical techniques and direct the way toward the development of rational curative medicines to increase the lifespan of patients. Immunotherapy has significantly enhanced the treatment of metastatic and late-stage melanoma, resulting in an incredible increase in positive responses to therapy. Despite the increasing occurrence of melanoma, the median survival rate for patients with advanced, inoperable terminal disease has increased from around six months to almost six years. The current knowledge of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and its interaction with the immune system has resulted in the swift growth of innovative immunotherapy treatments. Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles (EVs), ranging from 30 to 150 nm in size, that the majority of cells released them. Exosomes possess natural advantages such as high compatibility with living organisms and low potential for causing immune reactions, making them practical for delivering therapeutic agents like chemotherapy drugs, nucleic acids, and proteins. This review highlights recent advancements in using exosomes as an approach to providing medications for the treatment of melanoma.

Engineered Cellular Vesicles Displaying Glycosylated Nanobodies for Cancer Immunotherapy

Immune checkpoint blockade targeting the CD47/SIRPα axis represents an alluring avenue for cancer immunotherapy. However, the compromised efficacy and safety concerns in vivo of conventional anti-CD47 antibodies impede their wide clinical applications. Here we introduced a single type of high-mannose glycans into the nanobody against CD47 (HM-nCD47) and subsequently displayed HM-nCD47 on cellular vesicles (CVs) for enhanced cancer immunotherapy. In this platform, the CVs significantly improved the circulation time of HM-nCD47-CVs, the nCD47 enabled the blockade of the CD47/SIRPα axis, and the HM enhanced recognition of mannose-binding lectin, all synergistically activating the macrophage-mediated antitumor immunity. In both subcutaneous and metastatic murine tumor models, the HM-nCD47-CVs possessed significantly extended half-lives and increased accumulation at the tumor site, resulting in a remarkable macrophage-dependent inhibition of tumor growth, a transcriptomic remodeling of the immune response, and an increase in survival time. By integrating the chemical biology toolbox with cell membrane nanotechnology, the HM-nCD47-CVs represent a new immunotherapeutic platform for cancer and other diseases.

A Photoactivatable Self-Assembled Nanoagonist for Synergistic Therapy against Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Immunotherapy has revolutionized the cancer treatment paradigm, yet efficient immunotherapeutic responses against immune-cold/desert cancers remain challenging. Herein, we report that photoactivatable nanoagonists yield a potent antitumor synergy of photoimmunotherapy against pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). The nanoagonist was fabricated by assembling an amphiphilic boron dipyrromethene-derived polymer conjugated with a Toll-like receptor agonist via a photocleavable linker and stimulator of interferon genes agonist. The nanoagonist enables light-induced generation of reactive oxygen species and on-demand release of the agonists to yield synergistic photoimmunotherapy. The produced tumor antigens promote dendritic cell maturation, which is further amplified by these agonists for eliciting adaptive immunity, accompanied by apparently abscopal and long-term memory effects. The nanoagonist further alleviates the fibrosis of tumor stroma and the immunosuppressive microenvironment, leading to the deep infiltrations of clinically used therapeutics and immune cells to yield preferable combinational treatments against PDAC models. These results provide valuable insights into activatable nanoparticles for cancer therapy against immune-desert cancers.

A Biomimetic Autophagosomes-Based Nanovaccine Boosts Anticancer Immunity

Personalized cancer vaccines based on tumor cell lysates offer promise for cancer immunotherapy yet fail to elicit a robust therapeutic effect due to the weak immunogenicity of tumor antigens. Autophagosomes, obtained from pleural effusions and ascites of cancer patients, have been identified as abundant reservoirs of tumor neoantigens that exhibit heightened immunogenicity. However, their potential as personalized cancer vaccines have been constrained by suboptimal lymphatic-targeting performances and challenges in antigen-presenting cell endocytosis. Here,a reinforced biomimetic autophagosome-based (BAPs) nanovaccine generated by precisely amalgamating autophagosome-derived neoantigens and two types of adjuvants capable of targeting lymph nodes is developed to potently elicit antitumor immunity. The redox-responsive BAPs facilitate cytosolic vaccine opening within antigen-presenting cells, thereby exposing adjuvants and antigens to stimulate a strong immune response. BAPs evoke broad-spectrum T-cell responses, culminating in the effective eradication of 71.4% of established tumors. Notably, BAPs vaccination triggers enduring T-cell responses that confer robust protection, with 100% of mice shielded against tumor rechallenge and a significant reduction in tumor incidence by 87.5%. Furthermore, BAPs synergize with checkpoint blockade therapy to inhibit tumor growth in the poorly immunogenic breast cancer model. The biomimetic approach presents a powerful nanovaccine formula with high versatility for personalized cancer immunotherapy.

Advances in and prospects of immunotherapy for prostate cancer

Immunotherapy has shown promising therapeutic effects in hematological malignancies and certain solid tumors and has emerged as a critical and highly potential treatment modality for cancer. However, prostate cancer falls under the category of immune-resistant cold tumors, for which immunotherapy exhibits limited efficacy in patients with solid tumors. Thus, it is important to gain a deeper understanding of the tumor microenvironment in prostate cancer to facilitate immune system activation and overcome immune suppression to advance immunotherapy for prostate cancer. In this review, we discuss the immunosuppressive microenvironment of prostate cancer, which is characterized by the presence of few tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, abundant immunosuppressive cells, low immunogenicity, and a noninflammatory phenotype, which significantly influences the efficacy of immunotherapy for prostate cancer. Immunotherapy is mainly achieved by activating the host immune system and overcoming immunosuppression. In this regard, we summarize the therapeutic advances in immune checkpoint blockade, immunogenic cell death, reversal of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, tumor vaccines, immune adjuvants, chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, and overcoming penetration barriers in prostate cancer, with the aim of providing novel research insights and approaches to enhance the effectiveness of immunotherapy for prostate cancer.

2D Differential Metallic Immunopotentiators Drive High Diversity and Capability of Antigen-specific Immunity Against Tumor

The therapeutic efficacy of vaccines for treating cancers in clinics remains limited. Here, a rationally designed cancer vaccine by placing immunogenically differential and clinically approved aluminum (Al) or manganese (Mn) in a 2D nanosheet (NS) architecture together with antigens is reported. Structurally optimal NS with a high molar ratio of Mn to Al (MANS-H) features distinctive immune modulation, markedly promoting the influx of heterogeneous innate immune cells at the injection site. Stimulation of multiple subsets of dendritic cells (DCs) significantly increases the levels, subtypes, and functionalities of antigen-specific T cells. MANS-H demonstrates even greater effectiveness in the production of antigen-specific antibodies than the commercial adjuvant (Alhydrogel) by priming T helper (Th)2 cells rather than T follicular helper (Tfh) cells. Beyond humoral immunity, MANS-H evokes high frequencies of antigen-specific Th1 and CD8+ cell immunity, which are comparable with Quil-A that is widely used in veterinary vaccines. Immunized mice with MANS-H adjuvanted vaccines exert strong potency in tumor regression by promoting effector T cells infiltrating at tumor and overcoming tumor resistance in multiple highly aggressive tumor models. The engineered immunogen with an intriguing NS architecture and safe immunopotentiators offers the next clinical advance in cancer immunotherapy.

Engineered Cancer Nanovaccines: A New Frontier in Cancer Therapy

Vaccinations are essential for preventing and treating disease, especially cancer nanovaccines, which have gained considerable interest recently for their strong anti-tumor immune capabilities. Vaccines can prompt the immune system to generate antibodies and activate various immune cells, leading to a response against tumor tissues and reducing the negative effects and recurrence risks of traditional chemotherapy and surgery. To enhance the flexibility and targeting of vaccines, nanovaccines utilize nanotechnology to encapsulate or carry antigens at the nanoscale level, enabling more controlled and precise drug delivery to enhance immune responses. Cancer nanovaccines function by encapsulating tumor-specific antigens or tumor-associated antigens within nanomaterials. The small size of these nanomaterials allows for precise targeting of T cells, dendritic cells, or cancer cells, thereby eliciting a more potent anti-tumor response. In this paper, we focus on the classification of carriers for cancer nanovaccines, the roles of different target cells, and clinically tested cancer nanovaccines, discussing strategies for effectively inducing cytotoxic T lymphocytes responses and optimizing antigen presentation, while also looking ahead to the translational challenges of moving from animal experiments to clinical trials.

Carrier-Free Nanodrugs: From Bench to Bedside

Carrier-free nanodrugs with extraordinary active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) loading (even 100%), avoidable carrier-induced toxicity, and simple synthetic procedures are considered as one of the most promising candidates for disease theranostics. Substantial studies and the commercial success of "carrier-free" nanocrystals have demonstrated their strong clinical potential. However, their practical translations remain challenging and are impeded by unpredictable assembly processes, insufficient delivery efficiency, and an unclear in vivo fate. In this Perspective, we systematically outline the contemporary and emerging carrier-free nanodrugs based on diverse APIs, as well as highlight their opportunities and challenges in clinical translation. Looking ahead, further improvements in design and preparation, drug delivery, in vivo efficacy, and safety of carrier-free nanomedicines are essential to facilitate their translation from the bench to bedside.

Hypoxia-accelerating pyroptosis nanoinducers for promoting image-guided cancer immunotherapy

Precise image-guided cancer immunotherapy holds immense potential in revolutionizing cancer treatment. The strategies facilitating activatable imaging and controlled therapeutics are highly desired yet to be developed. Herein, we report a new pyroptosis nanoinducer that integrates aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgen) and DNA methyltransferase inhibitor with hypoxia-responsive covalent organic frameworks (COFs) for advanced image-guided cancer immunotherapy. We first synthesize and compare three donor-acceptor type AIEgens featuring varying numbers of electron-withdrawing units, and find that the incorporation of two acceptors yields the longest response wavelength and most effective photodynamic therapy (PDT) property, surpassing the performance of analogs with one or three acceptor groups. A COF-based nanoplatform containing AIEgen and pyroptosis drug is successfully constructed via the one-pot method. The intra-COF energy transfer significantly quenches AIEgen, in which both fluorescence and PDT properties greatly enhance upon hypoxia-triggered COF degradation. Moreover, the photodynamic process exacerbates hypoxia, accelerating pyroptosis drug release. The nanoagent enables sensitive delineation of tumor site through in situ activatable fluorescence signature. Thanks to the exceptional ROS production capabilities and hypoxia-accelerating drug release, the nanoagent not only inhibits primary tumor growth but also impedes the progression of distant tumors in 4T1 tumor-bearing mice through potent pyroptosis-mediated immune response. This research introduces a novel strategy for achieving activatable phototheranostics and self-accelerating drug release for synergetic cancer immunotherapy.

Light-Activated In Situ Vaccine with Enhanced Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte Infiltration and Function for Potent Cancer Immunotherapy

In situ cancer vaccination is an attractive strategy that stimulates protective antitumor immunity. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are major mediators of the adaptive immune defenses, with critical roles in antitumor immune response and establishing immune memory, and are consequently extremely important for in situ vaccines to generate systemic and lasting antitumor efficacy. However, the dense extracellular matrix and hypoxia in solid tumors severely impede the infiltration and function of CTLs, ultimately compromising the efficacy of in situ cancer vaccines. To address this issue, a robust in situ cancer vaccine, Au@MnO2 nanoparticles (AMOPs), based on a gold nanoparticle core coated with a manganese dioxide shell is developed. The AMOPs modulated the unfavorable tumor microenvironment (TME) to restore CTLs infiltration and function and efficiently induced immunogenic cell death. The Mn2+-mediated stimulator of the interferon genes pathway can be activated to further augment the therapeutic efficacy of the AMOPs. Thus, the AMOPs vaccine successfully elicited long-lasting antitumor immunity to considerably inhibit primary, recurrent, and metastatic tumors. This study not only highlights the importance of revitalizing CTLs efficacy against solid tumors but also makes progress toward overcoming TME barriers for sustained antitumor immunity.

Emerging Cancer Immunotherapies: Cutting-Edge Advances and Innovations in Development

The rise in biological therapies has revolutionized oncology, with immunotherapy leading the charge through breakthroughs such as CAR-T cell therapy for melanoma and B-ALL. Modified bispecific antibodies and CAR-T cells are being developed to enhance their effectiveness further. However, CAR-T cell therapy currently relies on a costly ex vivo manufacturing process, necessitating alternative strategies to overcome this bottleneck. Targeted in vivo viral transduction offers a promising avenue but remains under-optimized. Additionally, novel approaches are emerging, such as in vivo vaccine boosting of CAR-T cells to strengthen the immune response against tumors, and dendritic cell-based vaccines are under investigation. Beyond CAR-T cells, mRNA therapeutics represent another promising avenue. Targeted delivery of DNA/RNA using lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) shows potential, as LNPs can be directed to T cells. Moreover, CRISPR editing has demonstrated the ability to precisely edit the genome, enhancing the effector function and persistence of synthetic T cells. Enveloped delivery vehicles packaging Cas9 directed to modified T cells offer a virus-free method for safe and effective molecule release. While this platform still relies on ex vivo transduction, using cells from healthy donors or induced pluripotent stem cells can reduce costs, simplify manufacturing, and expand treatment to patients with low-quality T cells. The use of allogeneic CAR-T cells in cancer has gained attraction for its potential to lower costs and broaden accessibility. This review emphasizes critical strategies for improving the selectivity and efficacy of immunotherapies, paving the way for a more targeted and successful fight against cancer.

Cancer Nanovaccines: Nanomaterials and Clinical Perspectives

Cancer nanovaccines represent a promising frontier in cancer immunotherapy, utilizing nanotechnology to augment traditional vaccine efficacy. This review comprehensively examines the current state-of-the-art in cancer nanovaccine development, elucidating innovative strategies and technologies employed in their design. It explores both preclinical and clinical advancements, emphasizing key studies demonstrating their potential to elicit robust anti-tumor immune responses. The study encompasses various facets, including integrating biomaterial-based nanocarriers for antigen delivery, adjuvant selection, and the impact of nanoscale properties on vaccine performance. Detailed insights into the complex interplay between the tumor microenvironment and nanovaccine responses are provided, highlighting challenges and opportunities in optimizing therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, the study presents a thorough analysis of ongoing clinical trials, presenting a snapshot of the current clinical landscape. By curating the latest scientific findings and clinical developments, this study aims to serve as a comprehensive resource for researchers and clinicians engaged in advancing cancer immunotherapy. Integrating nanotechnology into vaccine design holds immense promise for revolutionizing cancer treatment paradigms, and this review provides a timely update on the evolving landscape of cancer nanovaccines.

Hybrid Cellular Nanovesicles Block PD-L1 Signal and Repolarize M2 Macrophages for Cancer Immunotherapy

The PD1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint blocking is a promising therapy, while immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) and poor tumor penetration of therapeutic antibodies limit its efficacy. Repolarization of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) offers a potential method to ameliorate immunosuppression of TME and further boost T cell antitumor immunity. Herein, hybrid cell membrane biomimetic nanovesicles (hNVs) are developed by fusing M1 macrophage-derived nanovesicles (M1-NVs) and PD1-overexpressed tumor cell-derived nanovesicles (PD1-NVs) to improve cancer immunotherapy. The M1-NVs promote the transformation of M2-like TAMs to M1-like phenotype and further increase the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, resulting in improved immunosuppressive TME. Concurrently, the PD1-NVs block PD1/PD-L1 pathway, which boosts cancer immunotherapy when combined with M1-NVs. In a breast cancer mouse model, the hNVs efficiently accumulate at the tumor site after intravenous injection and significantly inhibit the tumor growth. Mechanically, the M1 macrophages and CD8+ T lymphocytes in TME increase by twofold after the treatment, indicating effective immune activation. These results suggest the hNVs as a promising strategy to integrate TME improvement with PD1/PD-L1 blockade for cancer immunotherapy.

Exosome nanovesicles: biomarkers and new strategies for treatment of human diseases

Exosomes are nanoscale vesicles of cellular origin. One of the main characteristics of exosomes is their ability to carry a wide range of biomolecules from their parental cells, which are important mediators of intercellular communication and play an important role in physiological and pathological processes. Exosomes have the advantages of biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and wide biodistribution. As researchers' understanding of exosomes has increased, various strategies have been proposed for their use in diagnosing and treating diseases. Here, we provide an overview of the biogenesis and composition of exosomes, describe the relationship between exosomes and disease progression, and focus on the use of exosomes as biomarkers for early screening, disease monitoring, and guiding therapy in refractory diseases such as tumors and neurodegenerative diseases. We also summarize the current applications of exosomes, especially engineered exosomes, for efficient drug delivery, targeted therapies, gene therapies, and immune vaccines. Finally, the current challenges and potential research directions for the clinical application of exosomes are also discussed. In conclusion, exosomes, as an emerging molecule that can be used in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases, combined with multidisciplinary innovative solutions, will play an important role in clinical applications.

Current status and future directions of nanovaccine for cancer: a bibliometric analysis during 2004-2023

Background

Nanovaccine treatment is an exciting area of research in immunology and personalized medicine, holding great promise for enhancing immune responses and targeting specific diseases. Their small size allows efficient uptake by immune cells, leading to robust immune activation. They can incorporate immune-stimulating molecules to boost vaccine efficacy. Therefore, nanovaccine can be personalized to target tumor-specific antigens, activating the immune system against cancer cells. Currently, there have been ample evidence showing the effectiveness and potential of nanovaccine as a treatment for cancer. However, there was rare bibliometric analysis of nanovaccine for cancer. Here we performed a bibliometric and visual analysis of published studies related to nanovaccine treatment for cancer, providing the trend of future development of nanovaccine.

Methods

We collected the literatures based on the Web of Science Core Collection SCI-Expanded database. The bibliometric analysis was performed via utilizing visualization analysis tools VOSviewer, Co-Occurrence (COOC), Citespace, Bibliometrix (R-Tool of R-Studio), and HitCite.

Results

A total of 517 literatures were included in this study. China is the country with the most publications and the highest total local citation score (TLCS). The Chinese Academy of Sciences holds the largest research count in this field and the most prolific author is Deling Kong from Nankai University. The most prominent journal for publishing in this area is Biomaterials. The researches mainly focus on the therapeutic process of tumor nanovaccines, the particle composition and the application of nanovaccines, suggesting the potential hotspots and trends of nanovaccine.

Conclusion

In this study, we summarized the characteristics and variation trends of publications involved in nanovaccine, and categorized the most influential countries, institutions, authors, journals, hotspots and trends regarding the nanovaccine for cancer. With the continuous development of nanomaterials and tumor immunotherapy, nanovaccine for cancer provides a research field of significant clinical value and potential application.

Components, Formulations, Deliveries, and Combinations of Tumor Vaccines

Tumor vaccines, an important part of immunotherapy, prevent cancer or kill existing tumor cells by activating or restoring the body's own immune system. Currently, various formulations of tumor vaccines have been developed, including cell vaccines, tumor cell membrane vaccines, tumor DNA vaccines, tumor mRNA vaccines, tumor polypeptide vaccines, virus-vectored tumor vaccines, and tumor-in-situ vaccines. There are also multiple delivery systems for tumor vaccines, such as liposomes, cell membrane vesicles, viruses, exosomes, and emulsions. In addition, to decrease the risk of tumor immune escape and immune tolerance that may exist with a single tumor vaccine, combination therapy of tumor vaccines with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors, cytokines, CAR-T therapy, or photoimmunotherapy is an effective strategy. Given the critical role of tumor vaccines in immunotherapy, here, we look back to the history of tumor vaccines, and we discuss the antigens, adjuvants, formulations, delivery systems, mechanisms, combination therapy, and future directions of tumor vaccines.

Mitochondrial DNA-boosted dendritic cell-based nanovaccination triggers antitumor immunity in lung and pancreatic cancers

Low migratory dendritic cell (DC) levels pose a challenge in cancer immune surveillance, yet their impact on tumor immune status and immunotherapy responses remains unclear. We present clinical evidence linking reduced migratory DC levels to immune-cold tumor status, resulting in poor patient outcomes. To address this, we develop an autologous DC-based nanovaccination strategy using patient-derived organoid or cancer cell lysate-pulsed cationic nanoparticles (cNPs) to load immunogenic DC-derived microvesicles (cNPcancer cell@MVDC). This approach transforms immune-cold tumors, increases migratory DCs, activates T cells and natural killer cells, reduces tumor growth, and enhances survival in orthotopic pancreatic and lung cancer models, surpassing conventional methods. In vivo imaging reveals superior cNPcancer cell@MVDC accumulation in tumors and lymph nodes, promoting immune cell infiltration. Mechanistically, cNPs enrich mitochondrial DNA, enhancing cGAS-STING-mediated DC activation and migration. Our strategy shifts cold tumors to a hot state, enhancing antitumor immunity for potential personalized cancer treatments.

Functionally Designed Nanovaccines against SARS-CoV-2 and Its Variants

COVID-19, generated by SARS-CoV-2, has significantly affected healthcare systems worldwide. The epidemic has highlighted the urgent need for vaccine development. Besides the conventional vaccination models, which include live-attenuated, recombinant protein, and inactivated vaccines, nanovaccines present a distinct opportunity to progress vaccine research and offer convenient alternatives. This review highlights the many widely used nanoparticle vaccine vectors, outlines their benefits and drawbacks, and examines recent developments in nanoparticle vaccines to prevent SARS-CoV-2. It also offers a thorough overview of the many advantages of nanoparticle vaccines, including an enhanced host immune response, multivalent antigen delivery, and efficient drug delivery. The main objective is to provide a reference for the development of innovative antiviral vaccines.

Unlocking the power of nanomedicine: Cell membrane-derived biomimetic cancer nanovaccines for cancer treatment

Over the past decades, nanomedicine researchers have dedicated their efforts to developing nanoscale platforms capable of more precisely delivering drug payloads to attack tumors. Cancer nanovaccines are exhibiting a distinctive capability in inducing tumor-specific antitumor responses. Nevertheless, there remain numerous challenges that must be addressed for cancer nanovaccines to evoke sufficient therapeutic effects. Cell membrane-derived nanovaccines are an emerging class of cancer vaccines that comprise a synthetic nanoscale core camouflaged by naturally derived cell membranes. The specific cell membrane has a biomimetic nanoformulation with several distinctive abilities, such as immune evasion, enhanced biocompatibility, and tumor targeting, typically associated with a source cell. Here, we discuss the advancements of cell membrane-derived nanovaccines and how these vaccines are used for cancer therapeutics. Translational endeavors are currently in progress, and additional research is also necessary to effectively address crucial areas of demand, thereby facilitating the future successful translation of these emerging vaccine platforms.

MRI-Guided Tumor Therapy Based on Synergy of Ferroptosis, Immunosuppression Reversal and Disulfidptosis

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells have a high demand for oxygen and glucose to fuel their growth and spread, shaping the tumor microenvironment (TME) that can lead to a weakened immune system by hypoxia and increased risk of metastasis. To disrupt this vicious circle and improve cancer therapeutic efficacy, a strategy is proposed with the synergy of ferroptosis, immunosuppression reversal and disulfidptosis. An intelligent nanomedicine GOx-IA@HMON@IO is successfully developed to realize this strategy. The Fe release behaviors indicate the glutathione (GSH)-responsive degradation of HMON. The results of titanium sulfate assay, electron spin resonance (ESR) spectra, 5,5'-Dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid (DTNB) assay and T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) demonstrate the mechanism of the intelligent iron atom (IA)-based cascade reactions for GOx-IA@HMON@IO, generating robust reactive oxygen species (ROS). The results on cells and mice reinforce the synergistic mechanisms of ferroptosis, immunosuppression reversal and disulfidptosis triggered by the GOx-IA@HMON@IO with the following steps: 1) GSH peroxidase 4 (GPX4) depletion by disulfidptosis; 2) IA-based cascade reactions; 3) tumor hypoxia reversal; 4) immunosuppression reversal; 5) GPX4 depletion by immunotherapy. Based on the synergistic mechanisms of ferroptosis, immunosuppression reversal and disulfidptosis, the intelligent nanomedicine GOx-IA@HMON@IO can be used for MRI-guided tumor therapy with excellent biocompatibility and safety.

Dismantlable Coronated Nanoparticles for Coupling the Induction and Perception of Immunogenic Cell Death

Therapy-induced immunogenic cell death (ICD) can initiate both innate and adaptive immune responses for amplified anti-tumor efficacy. However, dying cell-released ICD signals are prone to being sequestered by the TIM-3 receptors on dendritic cell (DC) surfaces, preventing immune surveillance. Herein, dismantlable coronated nanoparticles (NPs) are fabricated as a type of spatiotemporally controlled nanocarriers for coupling tumor cell-mediated ICD induction to DC-mediated immune sensing. These NPs are loaded with an ICD inducer, mitoxantrone (MTO), and wrapped by a redox-labile anti-TIM-3 (αTIM-3) antibody corona, forming a separable core-shell structure. The antibody corona disintegrates under high levels of extracellular reactive oxygen species in the tumor microenvironment, exposing the MTO-loaded NP core for ICD induction and releasing functional αTIM-3 molecules for DC sensitization. Systemic administration of the coronated NPs augments DC maturation, promotes cytotoxic T cell recruitment, enhances tumor susceptibility to immune checkpoint blockade, and prevents the side effects of MTO. This study develops a promising nanoplatform to unleash the potential of host immunity in cancer therapy.

Next-Generation Vaccine Development with Nanomaterials: Recent Advances, Possibilities, and Challenges

Nanomaterials are becoming important tools for vaccine development owing to their tunable and adaptable nature. Unique properties of nanomaterials afford opportunities to modulate trafficking through various tissues, complement or augment adjuvant activities, and specify antigen valency and display. This versatility has enabled recent work designing nanomaterial vaccines for a broad range of diseases, including cancer, inflammatory diseases, and various infectious diseases. Recent successes of nanoparticle vaccines during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic have fueled enthusiasm further. In this review, the most recent developments in nanovaccines for infectious disease, cancer, inflammatory diseases, allergic diseases, and nanoadjuvants are summarized. Additionally, challenges and opportunities for clinical translation of this unique class of materials are discussed.