1
|
Lou J, Rezvani Y, Arriojas A, Wu Y, Shankar N, Degras D, Keroack CD, Duraisingh MT, Zarringhalam K, Gubbels MJ. Single cell expression and chromatin accessibility of the Toxoplasma gondii lytic cycle identifies AP2XII-8 as an essential ribosome regulon driver. Nat Commun 2024; 15:7419. [PMID: 39198388 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-51011-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 09/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Sequential lytic cycles driven by cascading transcriptional waves underlie pathogenesis in the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. This parasite's unique division by internal budding, short cell cycle, and jumbled up classically defined cell cycle stages have restrained in-depth transcriptional program analysis. Here, unbiased transcriptome and chromatin accessibility maps throughout the lytic cell cycle are established at the single-cell level. Correlated pseudo-timeline assemblies of expression and chromatin profiles maps transcriptional versus chromatin level transition points promoting the cell division cycle. Sequential clustering analysis identifies functionally related gene groups promoting cell cycle progression. Promoter DNA motif mapping reveals patterns of combinatorial regulation. Pseudo-time trajectory analysis reveals transcriptional bursts at different cell cycle points. The dominant burst in G1 is driven largely by transcription factor AP2XII-8, which engages a conserved DNA motif, and promotes the expression of 44 ribosomal proteins encoding regulon. Overall, the study provides integrated, multi-level insights into apicomplexan transcriptional regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Lou
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA
| | - Yasaman Rezvani
- Department of Mathematics, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA
- Center for Personalized Cancer Therapy, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Argenis Arriojas
- Center for Personalized Cancer Therapy, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yihan Wu
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA
| | - Nachiket Shankar
- Center for Personalized Cancer Therapy, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA
| | - David Degras
- Department of Mathematics, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Caroline D Keroack
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Manoj T Duraisingh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kourosh Zarringhalam
- Department of Mathematics, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA.
- Center for Personalized Cancer Therapy, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Herneisen AL, Peters ML, Smith TA, Shortt E, Lourido S. SPARK regulates AGC kinases central to the Toxoplasma gondii asexual cycle. eLife 2024; 13:RP93877. [PMID: 39136687 PMCID: PMC11321763 DOI: 10.7554/elife.93877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites balance proliferation, persistence, and spread in their metazoan hosts. AGC kinases, such as PKG, PKA, and the PDK1 ortholog SPARK, integrate environmental signals to toggle parasites between replicative and motile life stages. Recent studies have cataloged pathways downstream of apicomplexan PKG and PKA; however, less is known about the global integration of AGC kinase signaling cascades. Here, conditional genetics coupled to unbiased proteomics demonstrates that SPARK complexes with an elongin-like protein to regulate the stability of PKA and PKG in the model apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii. Defects attributed to SPARK depletion develop after PKG and PKA are down-regulated. Parasites lacking SPARK differentiate into the chronic form of infection, which may arise from reduced activity of a coccidian-specific PKA ortholog. This work delineates the signaling topology of AGC kinases that together control transitions within the asexual cycle of this important family of parasites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alice L Herneisen
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Michelle L Peters
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Tyler A Smith
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Emily Shortt
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Sebastian Lourido
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Marq JB, Gosetto M, Altenried A, Vadas O, Maco B, Dos Santos Pacheco N, Tosetti N, Soldati-Favre D, Lentini G. Cytokinetic abscission in Toxoplasma gondii is governed by protein phosphatase 2A and the daughter cell scaffold complex. EMBO J 2024:10.1038/s44318-024-00171-9. [PMID: 39009675 DOI: 10.1038/s44318-024-00171-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Cytokinetic abscission marks the final stage of cell division, during which the daughter cells physically separate through the generation of new barriers, such as the plasma membrane or cell wall. While the contractile ring plays a central role during cytokinesis in bacteria, fungi and animal cells, the process diverges in Apicomplexa. In Toxoplasma gondii, two daughter cells are formed within the mother cell by endodyogeny. The mechanism by which the progeny cells acquire their plasma membrane during the disassembly of the mother cell, allowing daughter cells to emerge, remains unknown. Here we identify and characterize five T. gondii proteins, including three protein phosphatase 2A subunits, which exhibit a distinct and dynamic localization pattern during parasite division. Individual downregulation of these proteins prevents the accumulation of plasma membrane at the division plane, preventing the completion of cellular abscission. Remarkably, the absence of cytokinetic abscission does not hinder the completion of subsequent division cycles. The resulting progeny are able to egress from the infected cells but fail to glide and invade, except in cases of conjoined twin parasites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Baptiste Marq
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Margaux Gosetto
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Aline Altenried
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Oscar Vadas
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Bohumil Maco
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Nicolò Tosetti
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Gaëlle Lentini
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hawkins LM, Wang C, Chaput D, Batra M, Marsilia C, Awshah D, Suvorova ES. The Crk4-Cyc4 complex regulates G 2/M transition in Toxoplasma gondii. EMBO J 2024; 43:2094-2126. [PMID: 38600241 PMCID: PMC11148040 DOI: 10.1038/s44318-024-00095-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
A versatile division of apicomplexan parasites and a dearth of conserved regulators have hindered the progress of apicomplexan cell cycle studies. While most apicomplexans divide in a multinuclear fashion, Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites divide in the traditional binary mode. We previously identified five Toxoplasma CDK-related kinases (Crk). Here, we investigated TgCrk4 and its cyclin partner TgCyc4. We demonstrated that TgCrk4 regulates conventional G2 phase processes, such as repression of chromosome rereplication and centrosome reduplication, and acts upstream of the spindle assembly checkpoint. The spatial TgCyc4 dynamics supported the TgCrk4-TgCyc4 complex role in the coordination of chromosome and centrosome cycles. We also identified a dominant TgCrk4-TgCyc4 complex interactor, TgiRD1 protein, related to DNA replication licensing factor CDT1 but played no role in licensing DNA replication in the G1 phase. Our results showed that TgiRD1 also plays a role in controlling chromosome and centrosome reduplication. Global phosphoproteome analyses identified TgCrk4 substrates, including TgORC4, TgCdc20, TgGCP2, and TgPP2ACA. Importantly, the phylogenetic and structural studies suggest the Crk4-Cyc4 complex is limited to a minor group of the binary dividing apicomplexans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Hawkins
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - Chengqi Wang
- College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - Dale Chaput
- Proteomics Core, College of Arts and Sciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - Mrinalini Batra
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - Clem Marsilia
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - Danya Awshah
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - Elena S Suvorova
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Jeffers V. Histone code: a common language and multiple dialects to meet the different developmental requirements of apicomplexan parasites. Curr Opin Microbiol 2024; 79:102472. [PMID: 38581913 PMCID: PMC11162943 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2024.102472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites have complex life cycles, often requiring transmission between two different hosts, facing periods of dormancy within the host or in the environment to maximize chances of transmission. To support survival in these different conditions, tightly regulated and correctly timed gene expression is critical. The modification of histones and nucleosome composition makes a significant contribution to this regulation, and as eukaryotes, the fundamental mechanisms underlying this process in apicomplexans are similar to those in model eukaryotic organisms. However, single-celled intracellular parasites face unique challenges, and regulation of gene expression at the epigenetic level provides tight control for responses that must often be rapid and robust. Here, we discuss the recent advances in understanding the dynamics of histone modifications across Apicomplexan life cycles and the molecular mechanisms that underlie epigenetic regulation of gene expression to promote parasite life cycle progression, dormancy, and transmission.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Jeffers
- Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Jiang Y, Shi Y, Xue Y, Hu D, Song X. AP2XII-1 and AP2XI-2 Suppress Schizogony Gene Expression in Toxoplasma gondii. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5527. [PMID: 38791568 PMCID: PMC11122372 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25105527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite that is important in medicine and veterinary science and undergoes distinct developmental transitions in its intermediate and definitive hosts. The switch between stages of T. gondii is meticulously regulated by a variety of factors. Previous studies have explored the role of the microrchidia (MORC) protein complex as a transcriptional suppressor of sexual commitment. By utilizing immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry, constituents of this protein complex have been identified, including MORC, Histone Deacetylase 3 (HDAC3), and several ApiAP2 transcription factors. Conditional knockout of MORC or inhibition of HDAC3 results in upregulation of a set of genes associated with schizogony and sexual stages in T. gondii tachyzoites. Here, our focus extends to two primary ApiAP2s (AP2XII-1 and AP2XI-2), demonstrating their significant impact on the fitness of asexual tachyzoites and their target genes. Notably, the targeted disruption of AP2XII-1 and AP2XI-2 resulted in a profound alteration in merozoite-specific genes targeted by the MORC-HDAC3 complex. Additionally, considerable overlap was observed in downstream gene profiles between AP2XII-1 and AP2XI-2, with AP2XII-1 specifically binding to a subset of ApiAP2 transcription factors, including AP2XI-2. These findings reveal an intricate cascade of ApiAP2 regulatory networks involved in T. gondii schizogony development, orchestrated by AP2XII-1 and AP2XI-2. This study provides valuable insights into the transcriptional regulation of T. gondii growth and development, shedding light on the intricate life cycle of this parasitic pathogen.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yucong Jiang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China; (Y.J.); (Y.X.); (D.H.)
| | - Yuehong Shi
- Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Engineering Research Center of Veterinary Biologics, Nanning 530004, China;
| | - Yingying Xue
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China; (Y.J.); (Y.X.); (D.H.)
| | - Dandan Hu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China; (Y.J.); (Y.X.); (D.H.)
- Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Engineering Research Center of Veterinary Biologics, Nanning 530004, China;
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Disease Control and Prevention, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Xingju Song
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China; (Y.J.); (Y.X.); (D.H.)
- Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Engineering Research Center of Veterinary Biologics, Nanning 530004, China;
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Disease Control and Prevention, Nanning 530004, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Baptista CG, Hosking S, Gas-Pascual E, Ciampossine L, Abel S, Hakimi MA, Jeffers V, Le Roch K, West CM, Blader IJ. The Toxoplasma gondii F-Box Protein L2 Functions as a Repressor of Stage Specific Gene Expression. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012269. [PMID: 38814984 PMCID: PMC11166348 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a foodborne pathogen that can cause severe and life-threatening infections in fetuses and immunocompromised patients. Felids are its only definitive hosts, and a wide range of animals, including humans, serve as intermediate hosts. When the transmissible bradyzoite stage is orally ingested by felids, they transform into merozoites that expand asexually, ultimately generating millions of gametes for the parasite sexual cycle. However, bradyzoites in intermediate hosts differentiate exclusively to disease-causing tachyzoites, which rapidly disseminate throughout the host. Though tachyzoites are well-studied, the molecular mechanisms governing transitioning between developmental stages are poorly understood. Each parasite stage can be distinguished by a characteristic transcriptional signature, with one signature being repressed during the other stages. Switching between stages require substantial changes in the proteome, which is achieved in part by ubiquitination. F-box proteins mediate protein poly-ubiquitination by recruiting substrates to SKP1, Cullin-1, F-Box protein E3 ubiquitin ligase (SCF-E3) complexes. We have identified an F-box protein named Toxoplasma gondii F-Box Protein L2 (TgFBXL2), which localizes to distinct perinucleolar sites. TgFBXL2 is stably engaged in an SCF-E3 complex that is surprisingly also associated with a COP9 signalosome complex that negatively regulates SCF-E3 function. At the cellular level, TgFBXL2-depleted parasites are severely defective in centrosome replication and daughter cell development. Most remarkable, RNAseq data show that TgFBXL2 conditional depletion induces the expression of stage-specific genes including a large cohort of genes necessary for sexual commitment. Together, these data suggest that TgFBXL2 is a latent guardian of stage specific gene expression in Toxoplasma and poised to remove conflicting proteins in response to an unknown trigger of development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos G. Baptista
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University at Buffalo School of Medicine, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| | - Sarah Hosking
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University at Buffalo School of Medicine, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| | - Elisabet Gas-Pascual
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Center for Tropical & Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia United States of America
| | - Loic Ciampossine
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Steven Abel
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Mohamed-Ali Hakimi
- Host-Pathogen Interactions and Immunity to Infection, Institute for Advanced Biosciences (IAB), INSERM U1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Grenoble Alpes University, Grenoble, France
| | - Victoria Jeffers
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, United States of America
| | - Karine Le Roch
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Christopher M. West
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Center for Tropical & Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia United States of America
| | - Ira J. Blader
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University at Buffalo School of Medicine, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Hryckowian ND, Knoll LJ. Sex in a dish: high-efficiency Toxoplasma pre-sexual development. Trends Parasitol 2024; 40:209-210. [PMID: 38311493 PMCID: PMC10939770 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2024.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/06/2024]
Abstract
Antunes et al. successfully grew cat-restricted stages of Toxoplasma gondii in cell culture by targeting parasite epigenetics and transcription factors. The highlight of this report is how efficiently parasites convert to these pre-sexual stages. Their work is an important step toward achieving feline-free recapitulation of the T. gondii sexual cycle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole D Hryckowian
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Laura J Knoll
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Wang JL, Li TT, Zhang NZ, Wang M, Sun LX, Zhang ZW, Fu BQ, Elsheikha HM, Zhu XQ. The transcription factor AP2XI-2 is a key negative regulator of Toxoplasma gondii merogony. Nat Commun 2024; 15:793. [PMID: 38278808 PMCID: PMC10817966 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-44967-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Sexual development in Toxoplasma gondii is a multistep process that culminates in the production of oocysts, constituting approximately 50% of human infections. However, the molecular mechanisms governing sexual commitment in this parasite remain poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the transcription factors AP2XI-2 and AP2XII-1 act as negative regulators, suppressing merozoite-primed pre-sexual commitment during asexual development. Depletion of AP2XI-2 in type II Pru strain induces merogony and production of mature merozoites in an alkaline medium but not in a neutral medium. In contrast, AP2XII-1-depleted Pru strain undergoes several rounds of merogony and produces merozoites in a neutral medium, with more pronounced effects observed under alkaline conditions. Additionally, we identified two additional AP2XI-2-interacting proteins involved in repressing merozoite programming. These findings underscore the intricate regulation of pre-sexual commitment by a network of factors and suggest that AP2XI-2 or AP2XII-1-depleted Pru parasites can serve as a model for studying merogony in vitro.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Lei Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ting-Ting Li
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Nian-Zhang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Li-Xiu Sun
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhi-Wei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Bao-Quan Fu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Hany M Elsheikha
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, LE12 5RD, UK.
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi Province, 030801, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|