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Zhang J, Jiang P, Wang S, Li M, Hao Z, Guan W, Pan J, Wu J, Zhang Y, Li H, Chen L, Yang B, Liu Y. Recent advances in the natural product analogues for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Bioorg Chem 2024; 153:107819. [PMID: 39276492 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2024.107819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2024] [Revised: 08/30/2024] [Accepted: 09/08/2024] [Indexed: 09/17/2024]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) represent a hallmark of numerous incapacitating and untreatable conditions, the incidence of which is escalating swiftly, exemplified by Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. There is an urgent necessity to create pharmaceuticals that exhibit high efficacy and minimal toxicity in order to address these debilitating diseases. The structural complexity and diversity of natural products confer upon them a broad spectrum of biological activities, thereby significantly contributing to the history of drug discovery. Nevertheless, natural products present challenges in drug discovery, including time-consuming separation processes, low content, low bioavailability, and other related issues. To address these challenges, numerous analogs of natural products have been synthesized. This methodology enables the rapid synthesis of analogs of natural products with the potential to serve as lead compounds for drug development, thereby paving the way for the discovery of novel pharmaceuticals. This paper provides a summary of 127 synthetic analogues featuring various natural product structures, including flavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, phenylpropanoids, terpenoids, polyphenols, and amides. The compounds are categorized based on their efficacy in treating various diseases. Furthermore, this article delves into the structure-activity relationship (SAR) of certain analogues, offering a thorough point of reference for the systematic development of pharmaceuticals aimed at addressing neurodegenerative conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinling Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China; Research Institute of Medicine & Pharmacy, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar 161006, China
| | - Peng Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Shuping Wang
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Mengmeng Li
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Zhichao Hao
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Wei Guan
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Juan Pan
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Jiatong Wu
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Yiqiang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Hua Li
- Institute of Structural Pharmacology & TCM Chemical Biology, College of Pharmacy, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou 350122, China.
| | - Lixia Chen
- Wuya College of Innovation, Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design & Discovery, Ministry of Education, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Bingyou Yang
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China.
| | - Yan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Basic and Application Research of Beiyao (Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine), Ministry of Education, Harbin 150040, China.
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Suo Y, Fedor JG, Zhang H, Tsolova K, Shi X, Sharma K, Kumari S, Borgnia M, Zhan P, Im W, Lee SY. Molecular basis of the urate transporter URAT1 inhibition by gout drugs. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.09.11.612563. [PMID: 39314352 PMCID: PMC11419087 DOI: 10.1101/2024.09.11.612563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/25/2024]
Abstract
Hyperuricemia is a condition when uric acid, a waste product of purine metabolism, accumulates in the blood1. Untreated hyperuricemia can lead to crystal formation of monosodium urate in the joints, causing a painful inflammatory disease known as gout. These conditions are associated with many other diseases and affect a significant and increasing proportion of the population2-4. The human urate transporter 1 (URAT1) is responsible for the reabsorption of ~90% of uric acid in the kidneys back into the blood, making it a primary target for treating hyperuricemia and gout5. Despite decades of research and development, clinically available URAT1 inhibitors have limitations because the molecular basis of URAT1 inhibition by gout drugs remains unknown5. Here we present cryo-electron microscopy structures of URAT1 alone and in complex with three clinically relevant inhibitors: benzbromarone, lesinurad, and the novel compound TD-3. Together with functional experiments and molecular dynamics simulations, we reveal that these inhibitors bind selectively to URAT1 in inward-open states. Furthermore, we discover differences in the inhibitor dependent URAT1 conformations as well as interaction networks, which contribute to drug specificity. Our findings illuminate a general theme for URAT1 inhibition, paving the way for the design of next-generation URAT1 inhibitors in the treatment of gout and hyperuricemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Suo
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, 27710, USA
| | - Justin G. Fedor
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, 27710, USA
| | - Han Zhang
- Departments of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 18015, USA
| | - Kalina Tsolova
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, 27710, USA
| | - Xiaoyu Shi
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan 250012 Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Kedar Sharma
- Genome Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Shweta Kumari
- Departments of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 18015, USA
| | - Mario Borgnia
- Genome Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Peng Zhan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan 250012 Shandong, P.R. China
| | - Wonpil Im
- Departments of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 18015, USA
| | - Seok-Yong Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, 27710, USA
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3
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Luo D, Zhang Y, Li Y, Liu Z, Wu H, Xue W. Structural Models of Human Norepinephrine Transporter Ensemble Reveal the Allosteric Sites and Ligand-Binding Mechanism. J Phys Chem B 2024; 128:8651-8661. [PMID: 39207306 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.4c03731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
The norepinephrine transporter (NET) plays a pivotal role in recycling norepinephrine (NE) from the synaptic cleft. However, the structures referring to the conformational heterogeneity of NET during the transport cycle remain poorly understood. Here, three structural models of NE bound to the orthosteric site of NET in outward-open (OOholo), outward-occluded (OCholo), and inward-open (IOholo) conformations were first obtained using the multistate structures of serotonin transporter as templates and further characterized through Gaussian-accelerated molecular dynamics and free energy reweighting. Analysis of the structures revealed eight potential allosteric sites on the functional-specific states of NET. One of the pharmacologically relevant pockets located at the extracellular vestibule was further verified by simulating the binding behaviors of a clinical trial drug χ-MrIA that is allosterically regulating NET. These structural and energetic insights into NET advanced our understanding of NE reuptake and paved the way for discovering novel molecules targeting the allosteric sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ding Luo
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Natural Product Synthesis and Drug Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China
| | - Yinghong Li
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Big Data for Bio Intelligence, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 400065, China
| | - Zerong Liu
- Central Nervous System Drug Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Credit Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Luzhou 646000, China
| | - Haibo Wu
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Weiwei Xue
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Natural Product Synthesis and Drug Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
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4
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Zhang Y, Dai F, Chen N, Zhou D, Lee CH, Song C, Zhang Y, Zhang Z. Structural insights into VAChT neurotransmitter recognition and inhibition. Cell Res 2024; 34:665-668. [PMID: 38862671 PMCID: PMC11369146 DOI: 10.1038/s41422-024-00986-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Fei Dai
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Nanhao Chen
- Center for Quantitative Biology, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Dong Zhou
- Center for Life Sciences, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Chia-Hsueh Lee
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA.
| | - Chen Song
- Center for Quantitative Biology, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China.
- Center for Life Sciences, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China.
| | - Yixiao Zhang
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.
| | - Zhe Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.
- Center for Life Sciences, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China.
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5
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Lyu Y, Fu C, Ma H, Su Z, Sun Z, Zhou X. Engineering of a mammalian VMAT2 for cryo-EM analysis results in non-canonical protein folding. Nat Commun 2024; 15:6511. [PMID: 39095428 PMCID: PMC11297040 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50934-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) belongs to the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and mediates cytoplasmic monoamine packaging into presynaptic vesicles. Here, we present two cryo-EM structures of VMAT2, with a frog VMAT2 adopting a canonical MFS fold and an engineered sheep VMAT2 adopting a non-canonical fold. Both VMAT2 proteins mediate uptake of a selective fluorescent VMAT2 substrate into cells. Molecular docking, substrate binding and transport analysis reveal potential substrate binding mechanism in VMAT2. Meanwhile, caution is advised when interpreting engineered membrane protein structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Lyu
- Department of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Chunting Fu
- Department of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Haiyun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Department of Geriatrics and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Zhaoming Su
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, Department of Geriatrics and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China.
| | - Ziyi Sun
- Department of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China.
| | - Xiaoming Zhou
- Department of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China.
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6
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Wu D, Yu Z, Chen Q, Zhao J, Huang B, Wang Y, Su J, Li N, Jiang D, Zhao Y. Structural snapshots of human VMAT2 reveal insights into substrate recognition and proton coupling mechanism. Cell Res 2024; 34:586-589. [PMID: 38777861 PMCID: PMC11291630 DOI: 10.1038/s41422-024-00974-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Di Wu
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhuoya Yu
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Biomacromolecules (CAS), National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qihao Chen
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Biomacromolecules (CAS), National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Zhao
- Peking University Institute of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, Shandong Laboratory of Advanced Agricultural Sciences at Weifang, Weifang, Shandong, China
| | - Bo Huang
- Beijing StoneWise Technology Co., Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Yuhang Wang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Biomacromolecules (CAS), National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jiawei Su
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Biomacromolecules (CAS), National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Na Li
- Heart Center and Beijing Key Laboratory of Hypertension, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Daohua Jiang
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Yan Zhao
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
- Key Laboratory of Biomacromolecules (CAS), National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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7
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Miwa A, Kamiya K. Cell-Penetrating Peptide-Mediated Biomolecule Transportation in Artificial Lipid Vesicles and Living Cells. Molecules 2024; 29:3339. [PMID: 39064917 PMCID: PMC11279660 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29143339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2024] [Revised: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Signal transduction and homeostasis are regulated by complex protein interactions in the intracellular environment. Therefore, the transportation of impermeable macromolecules (nucleic acids, proteins, and drugs) that control protein interactions is essential for modulating cell functions and therapeutic applications. However, macromolecule transportation across the cell membrane is not easy because the cell membrane separates the intra/extracellular environments, and the types of molecular transportation are regulated by membrane proteins. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are expected to be carriers for molecular transport. CPPs can transport macromolecules into cells through endocytosis and direct translocation. The transport mechanism remains largely unclear owing to several possibilities. In this review, we describe the methods for investigating CPP conformation, translocation, and cargo transportation using artificial membranes. We also investigated biomolecular transport across living cell membranes via CPPs. Subsequently, we show not only the biochemical applications but also the synthetic biological applications of CPPs. Finally, recent progress in biomolecule and nanoparticle transportation via CPPs into specific tissues is described from the viewpoint of drug delivery. This review provides the opportunity to discuss the mechanism of biomolecule transportation through these two platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Koki Kamiya
- Division of Molecular Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Gunma University, Kiryu 376-8515, Gunma, Japan;
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Schuldiner S, Forrest LR. VMAT structures reveal exciting targets for drug development. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2024; 45:385-387. [PMID: 38429134 PMCID: PMC11191364 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2024.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT)-2 has a crucial role in the neurotransmission of biogenic amines. Recently, Dalton et al., Pidathala et al., Wu et al., and Wang et al. individually reported cryo-electron microscopy (EM) structures of human VMAT2, offering opportunities for developing improved therapeutics and deep insights into the functioning of this protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shimon Schuldiner
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Institute of Life Sciences, Silberman Bldg. 1-513, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram, Jerusalem 91904, Israel.
| | - Lucy R Forrest
- Computational Structural Biology Section, 35 Convent Drive, Room 3D-991, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-8202, USA.
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Tu G, Fu T, Zheng G, Xu B, Gou R, Luo D, Wang P, Xue W. Computational Chemistry in Structure-Based Solute Carrier Transporter Drug Design: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives. J Chem Inf Model 2024; 64:1433-1455. [PMID: 38294194 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c01736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Solute carrier transporters (SLCs) are a class of important transmembrane proteins that are involved in the transportation of diverse solute ions and small molecules into cells. There are approximately 450 SLCs within the human body, and more than a quarter of them are emerging as attractive therapeutic targets for multiple complex diseases, e.g., depression, cancer, and diabetes. However, only 44 unique transporters (∼9.8% of the SLC superfamily) with 3D structures and specific binding sites have been reported. To design innovative and effective drugs targeting diverse SLCs, there are a number of obstacles that need to be overcome. However, computational chemistry, including physics-based molecular modeling and machine learning- and deep learning-based artificial intelligence (AI), provides an alternative and complementary way to the classical drug discovery approach. Here, we present a comprehensive overview on recent advances and existing challenges of the computational techniques in structure-based drug design of SLCs from three main aspects: (i) characterizing multiple conformations of the proteins during the functional process of transportation, (ii) identifying druggability sites especially the cryptic allosteric ones on the transporters for substrates and drugs binding, and (iii) discovering diverse small molecules or synthetic protein binders targeting the binding sites. This work is expected to provide guidelines for a deep understanding of the structure and function of the SLC superfamily to facilitate rational design of novel modulators of the transporters with the aid of state-of-the-art computational chemistry technologies including artificial intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gao Tu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Natural Product Synthesis and Drug Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Tingting Fu
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | | | - Binbin Xu
- Chengdu Sintanovo Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Chengdu 610200, China
| | - Rongpei Gou
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Natural Product Synthesis and Drug Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Ding Luo
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Natural Product Synthesis and Drug Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Panpan Wang
- College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Huanghuai University, Zhumadian 463000, China
| | - Weiwei Xue
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Natural Product Synthesis and Drug Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
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10
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Yadav R, Gati C. Packaging monoamine neurotransmitters. Cell Res 2024; 34:185-186. [PMID: 38242944 PMCID: PMC10907750 DOI: 10.1038/s41422-023-00922-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Yadav
- Molecular and Computational Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- The Bridge Institute, Michelson Center for Convergent Biosciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Cornelius Gati
- Molecular and Computational Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
- The Bridge Institute, Michelson Center for Convergent Biosciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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