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Zheng K, Hao Y, Xia C, Cheng S, Yu J, Chen Z, Li Y, Niu Y, Ran S, Wang S, Ye W, Luo Z, Li X, Zhao J, Li R, Zong J, Zhang H, Lai L, Huang P, Zhou C, Xia J, Zhang X, Wu J. Effects and mechanisms of the myocardial microenvironment on cardiomyocyte proliferation and regeneration. Front Cell Dev Biol 2024; 12:1429020. [PMID: 39050889 PMCID: PMC11266095 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2024.1429020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The adult mammalian cardiomyocyte has a limited capacity for self-renewal, which leads to the irreversible heart dysfunction and poses a significant threat to myocardial infarction patients. In the past decades, research efforts have been predominantly concentrated on the cardiomyocyte proliferation and heart regeneration. However, the heart is a complex organ that comprises not only cardiomyocytes but also numerous noncardiomyocyte cells, all playing integral roles in maintaining cardiac function. In addition, cardiomyocytes are exposed to a dynamically changing physical environment that includes oxygen saturation and mechanical forces. Recently, a growing number of studies on myocardial microenvironment in cardiomyocyte proliferation and heart regeneration is ongoing. In this review, we provide an overview of recent advances in myocardial microenvironment, which plays an important role in cardiomyocyte proliferation and heart regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kexiao Zheng
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yanglin Hao
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Chenkun Xia
- Department of Anesthesiology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Shaoxian Cheng
- Jingshan Union Hospital, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jizhang Yu
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhang Chen
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuan Li
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuqing Niu
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Shuan Ran
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Song Wang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Weicong Ye
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zilong Luo
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaohan Li
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jiulu Zhao
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Ran Li
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Junjie Zong
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Han Zhang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Longyong Lai
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Pinyan Huang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Cheng Zhou
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jiahong Xia
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xi Zhang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jie Wu
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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Zheng S, Ye L. Hemodynamic Melody of Postnatal Cardiac and Pulmonary Development in Children with Congenital Heart Diseases. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:234. [PMID: 38666846 PMCID: PMC11048247 DOI: 10.3390/biology13040234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Hemodynamics is the eternal theme of the circulatory system. Abnormal hemodynamics and cardiac and pulmonary development intertwine to form the most important features of children with congenital heart diseases (CHDs), thus determining these children's long-term quality of life. Here, we review the varieties of hemodynamic abnormalities that exist in children with CHDs, the recently developed neonatal rodent models of CHDs, and the inspirations these models have brought us in the areas of cardiomyocyte proliferation and maturation, as well as in alveolar development. Furthermore, current limitations, future directions, and clinical decision making based on these inspirations are highlighted. Understanding how CHD-associated hemodynamic scenarios shape postnatal heart and lung development may provide a novel path to improving the long-term quality of life of children with CHDs, transplantation of stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes, and cardiac regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sixie Zheng
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, National Children’s Medical Center, Shanghai 200127, China;
- Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Congenital Heart Disease, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, National Children’s Medical Center, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Lincai Ye
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, National Children’s Medical Center, Shanghai 200127, China;
- Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Congenital Heart Disease, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, National Children’s Medical Center, Shanghai 200127, China
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Ostadal B, Kolar F, Ostadalova I, Sedmera D, Olejnickova V, Hlavackova M, Alanova P. Developmental Aspects of Cardiac Adaptation to Increased Workload. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis 2023; 10:jcdd10050205. [PMID: 37233172 DOI: 10.3390/jcdd10050205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The heart is capable of extensive adaptive growth in response to the demands of the body. When the heart is confronted with an increased workload over a prolonged period, it tends to cope with the situation by increasing its muscle mass. The adaptive growth response of the cardiac muscle changes significantly during phylogenetic and ontogenetic development. Cold-blooded animals maintain the ability for cardiomyocyte proliferation even in adults. On the other hand, the extent of proliferation during ontogenetic development in warm-blooded species shows significant temporal limitations: whereas fetal and neonatal cardiac myocytes express proliferative potential (hyperplasia), after birth proliferation declines and the heart grows almost exclusively by hypertrophy. It is, therefore, understandable that the regulation of the cardiac growth response to the increased workload also differs significantly during development. The pressure overload (aortic constriction) induced in animals before the switch from hyperplastic to hypertrophic growth leads to a specific type of left ventricular hypertrophy which, in contrast with the same stimulus applied in adulthood, is characterized by hyperplasia of cardiomyocytes, capillary angiogenesis and biogenesis of collagenous structures, proportional to the growth of myocytes. These studies suggest that timing may be of crucial importance in neonatal cardiac interventions in humans: early definitive repairs of selected congenital heart disease may be more beneficial for the long-term results of surgical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bohuslav Ostadal
- Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Frantisek Kolar
- Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Ivana Ostadalova
- Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - David Sedmera
- Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic
- Institute of Anatomy, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, 128 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Olejnickova
- Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic
- Institute of Anatomy, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, 128 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marketa Hlavackova
- Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Alanova
- Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic
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Zhou C, Li D, Cui Q, Sun Q, Hu Y, Xiao Y, Jiang C, Qiu L, Zhang H, Ye L, Sun Y. Ability of the Right Ventricle to Serve as a Systemic Ventricle in Response to the Volume Overload at the Neonatal Stage. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11121831. [PMID: 36552341 PMCID: PMC9775952 DOI: 10.3390/biology11121831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In children with hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS), volume overload (VO) is inevitable, and the right ventricle (RV) pumps blood into the systemic circulation. Understanding the molecular differences and their different responses to VO between the RV and left ventricle (LV) at the neonatal and highly plastic stages may improve the long-term management of children with HLHS. METHODS AND RESULTS A neonatal rat ventricular VO model was established by the creation of a fistula between the inferior vena cava and the abdominal aorta on postnatal day 1 (P1) and confirmed by echocardiographic and histopathological analyses. Transcriptomic analysis demonstrated that some of the major differences between a normal neonatal RV and LV were associated with the thyroid hormone and insulin signaling pathways. Under the influence of VO, the levels of insulin receptors and thyroid hormone receptors were significantly increased in the LV but decreased in the RV. The transcriptomic analysis also demonstrated that under the influence of VO, the top two common enriched pathways between the RV and LV were the insulin and thyroid hormone signaling pathways, whereas the RV-specific enriched pathways were primarily associated with lipid metabolism and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC); further, the LV-specific enriched pathways were primarily associated with nucleic acid metabolism and microRNAs in cancer. CONCLUSIONS Insulin and thyroid hormones may play critical roles in the differences between a neonatal RV and LV as well as their common responses to VO. Regarding the isolated responses to VO, the RV favors an ARVC change and the LV favors a reduction in microRNAs in cancer. The current study suggests that insulin, thyroid hormone, and cancer-associated microRNAs are potential therapeutic targets that should be explored by basic science studies to improve the function of the RV to match that of the LV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunxia Zhou
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Debao Li
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Qing Cui
- Department of Cardiology, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Qi Sun
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Yuqing Hu
- Department of Cardiology, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Yingying Xiao
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Chuan Jiang
- Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Congenital Heart Disease, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Lisheng Qiu
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Haibo Zhang
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
- Correspondence: (H.Z.); (Y.S.); Tel.: +86-21-38626649 (H.Z. & Y.S.); Fax: +86-21-50891405 (H.Z. & Y.S.)
| | - Lincai Ye
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
- Shanghai Institute for Pediatric Congenital Heart Disease, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
- Institute of Pediatric Translational Medicine, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Yanjun Sun
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
- Correspondence: (H.Z.); (Y.S.); Tel.: +86-21-38626649 (H.Z. & Y.S.); Fax: +86-21-50891405 (H.Z. & Y.S.)
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Huang M, Yu L, Wang X, Wang M, Li W, Tang J, Ling G, Wei X, Wang Y, Wang W, Wu Y, Lu L. Evaluation of the transverse aortic constriction model in ICR and C57BL/6J mice. Front Physiol 2022; 13:1026884. [PMID: 36523549 PMCID: PMC9745147 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1026884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 08/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Transverse aortic constriction (TAC) is a frequently used model to investigate pressure overload-induced progressive heart failure (HF); however, there is considerable phenotypic variation among different mouse strains and even sub-strains. Moreover, less is known about the TAC model in ICR mice. Therefore, to determine the suitability of the ICR strain for TAC-induced HF research, we compared the effects of TAC on ICR and C57BL/6J mice at one, two and four weeks post-TAC via echocardiography, organ index, morphology, and histology. At the end of the study, behavior and gene expression patterns were assessed, and overall survival was monitored. Compared to the sham-operated mice, ICR and C57BL/6J mice displayed hypertrophic phenotypes with a significant increase in ventricle wall thickness, heart weight and ratio, and cross-sectional area of cardiomyocytes after a 2-week TAC exposure. In addition, ICR mice developed reduced systolic function and severe lung congestion 4 weeks post-TAC, whereas C57BL/6J did not. Besides, ICR mice demonstrated comparable survival, similar gene expression alteration but severer fibrotic remodeling and poor behavioral performance compared to the C57BL/6J mice. Our data demonstrated that ICR was quite sensitive to TAC-induced heart failure and can be an ideal research tool to investigate mechanisms and drug intervention for pressure overload-induced HF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengying Huang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Lishuang Yu
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoping Wang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Mingmin Wang
- Endocrinology Department, First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Weili Li
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Jiayang Tang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Guanjing Ling
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoqi Wei
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yong Wang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of TCM Syndrome and Formula, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of TCM Syndrome and Formula, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Wu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of TCM Syndrome and Formula, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
- Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Linghui Lu
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of TCM Syndrome and Formula, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
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Aerobic Exercise Prevents Arterial Stiffness and Attenuates Hyperexcitation of Sympathetic Nerves in Perivascular Adipose Tissue of Mice after Transverse Aortic Constriction. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231911189. [PMID: 36232489 PMCID: PMC9570255 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 09/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We aimed to investigate the efficacy of exercise on preventing arterial stiffness and the potential role of sympathetic nerves within perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) in pressure-overload-induced heart failure (HF) mice. Eight-week-old male mice were subjected to sham operation (SHAM), transverse aortic constriction-sedentary (TAC-SE), and transverse aortic constriction-exercise (TAC-EX) groups. Six weeks of aerobic exercise training was performed using a treadmill. Arterial stiffness was determined by measuring the elastic modulus. The elastic and collagen fibers of the aorta and sympathetic nerve distribution in PVAT were observed. Circulating noradrenaline (NE), expressions of β3-adrenergic receptor (β3-AR), and adiponectin in PVAT were quantified. During the recovery of cardiac function by aerobic exercise, thoracic aortic collagen elastic modulus (CEM) and collagen fibers were significantly decreased (p < 0.05, TAC-SE vs. TAC-EX), and elastin elastic modulus (EEM) was significantly increased (p < 0.05, TAC-SE vs. TAC-EX). Circulating NE and sympathetic nerve distribution in PVAT were significantly decreased (p < 0.05, TAC-SE vs. TAC-EX). The expression of β3-AR was significantly reduced (p < 0.05, TAC-SE vs. TAC-EX), and adiponectin was significantly increased (p < 0.05, TAC-SE vs. TAC-EX) in PVAT. Regular aerobic exercise can effectively prevent arterial stiffness and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling in the developmental course of HF, during which sympathetic innervation and adiponectin within PVAT might be strongly implicated.
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Pilz PM, Ward JE, Chang WT, Kiss A, Bateh E, Jha A, Fisch S, Podesser BK, Liao R. Large and Small Animal Models of Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction. Circ Res 2022; 130:1888-1905. [PMID: 35679365 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.122.320246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Heart failure (HF) describes a heterogenous complex spectrum of pathological conditions that results in structural and functional remodeling leading to subsequent impairment of cardiac function, including either systolic dysfunction, diastolic dysfunction, or both. Several factors chronically lead to HF, including cardiac volume and pressure overload that may result from hypertension, valvular lesions, acute, or chronic ischemic injuries. Major forms of HF include hypertrophic, dilated, and restrictive cardiomyopathy. The severity of cardiomyopathy can be impacted by other comorbidities such as diabetes or obesity and external stress factors. Age is another major contributor, and the number of patients with HF is rising worldwide in part due to an increase in the aged population. HF can occur with reduced ejection fraction (HF with reduced ejection fraction), that is, the overall cardiac function is compromised, and typically the left ventricular ejection fraction is lower than 40%. In some cases of HF, the ejection fraction is preserved (HF with preserved ejection fraction). Animal models play a critical role in facilitating the understanding of molecular mechanisms of how hearts fail. This review aims to summarize and describe the strengths, limitations, and outcomes of both small and large animal models of HF with reduced ejection fraction that are currently used in basic and translational research. The driving defect is a failure of the heart to adequately supply the tissues with blood due to impaired filling or pumping. An accurate model of HF with reduced ejection fraction would encompass the symptoms (fatigue, dyspnea, exercise intolerance, and edema) along with the pathology (collagen fibrosis, ventricular hypertrophy) and ultimately exhibit a decrease in cardiac output. Although countless experimental studies have been published, no model completely recapitulates the full human disease. Therefore, it is critical to evaluate the strength and weakness of each animal model to allow better selection of what animal models to use to address the scientific question proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick M Pilz
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (P.M.P., E.B., R.L.).,Ludwig Boltzmann Institute at the Center for Biomedical Research, Medical University of Vienna, Austria (P.M.P., A.K., B.K.P.)
| | - Jennifer E Ward
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, MA (J.E.W., S.F., R.L.)
| | - Wei-Ting Chang
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan (W.-T.C.).,Department of Cardiology, Chi-Mei Medical Center, Taiwan (W.-T.C.)
| | - Attila Kiss
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute at the Center for Biomedical Research, Medical University of Vienna, Austria (P.M.P., A.K., B.K.P.)
| | - Edward Bateh
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (P.M.P., E.B., R.L.)
| | - Alokkumar Jha
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (P.M.P., E.B., R.L.)
| | - Sudeshna Fisch
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, MA (J.E.W., S.F., R.L.)
| | - Bruno K Podesser
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute at the Center for Biomedical Research, Medical University of Vienna, Austria (P.M.P., A.K., B.K.P.)
| | - Ronglih Liao
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA (P.M.P., E.B., R.L.).,Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, MA (J.E.W., S.F., R.L.)
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