Advances in mass spectrometry to unravel the structure and function of protein condensates

Membraneless organelles in health and disease: exploring the molecular basis, physiological roles and pathological implications

Once considered unconventional cellular structures, membraneless organelles (MLOs), cellular substructures involved in biological processes or pathways under physiological conditions, have emerged as central players in cellular dynamics and function. MLOs can be formed through liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), resulting in the creation of condensates. From neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular diseases, aging, and metabolism to cancer, the influence of MLOs on human health and disease extends widely. This review discusses the underlying mechanisms of LLPS, the biophysical properties that drive MLO formation, and their implications for cellular function. We highlight recent advances in understanding how the physicochemical environment, molecular interactions, and post-translational modifications regulate LLPS and MLO dynamics. This review offers an overview of the discovery and current understanding of MLOs and biomolecular condensate in physiological conditions and diseases. This article aims to deliver the latest insights on MLOs and LLPS by analyzing current research, highlighting their critical role in cellular organization. The discussion also covers the role of membrane-associated condensates in cell signaling, including those involving T-cell receptors, stress granules linked to lysosomes, and biomolecular condensates within the Golgi apparatus. Additionally, the potential of targeting LLPS in clinical settings is explored, highlighting promising avenues for future research and therapeutic interventions.

Biomolecular condensates and disease pathogenesis

Biomolecular condensates or membraneless organelles (MLOs) formed by liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) divide intracellular spaces into discrete compartments for specific functions. Dysregulation of LLPS or aberrant phase transition that disturbs the formation or material states of MLOs is closely correlated with neurodegeneration, tumorigenesis, and many other pathological processes. Herein, we summarize the recent progress in development of methods to monitor phase separation and we discuss the biogenesis and function of MLOs formed through phase separation. We then present emerging proof-of-concept examples regarding the disruption of phase separation homeostasis in a diverse array of clinical conditions including neurodegenerative disorders, hearing loss, cancers, and immunological diseases. Finally, we describe the emerging discovery of chemical modulators of phase separation.

Emerging experimental methods to study the thermodynamics of biomolecular condensate formation

The formation of biomolecular condensates in vivo is increasingly recognized to underlie a multitude of crucial cellular functions. Furthermore, the evolution of highly dynamic protein condensates into progressively less reversible assemblies is thought to be involved in a variety of disorders, from cancer over neurodegeneration to rare genetic disorders. There is an increasing need for efficient experimental methods to characterize the thermodynamics of condensate formation and that can be used in screening campaigns to identify and rationally design condensate modifying compounds. Theoretical advances in the field are also identifying the key parameters that need to be measured in order to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the underlying interactions and driving forces. Here, we review recent progress in the development of efficient and quantitative experimental methods to study the driving forces behind and the temporal evolution of biomolecular condensates.