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Wang N, Zhang Z, Huang L, Chen T, Yu X, Huang Y. Current status and progress in the omics of Clonorchis sinensis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2023; 255:111573. [PMID: 37127222 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2023.111573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Clonorchis sinensis (C. sinensis) is a fish-borne trematode that inhabits the bile duct of mammals including humans, cats, dogs, rats, and so on. In the complex life cycle of C. sinensis, the worm develops successively in two intermediate hosts in fresh water and one definitive host. What's more, it undergoes eight developmental stages with a distinct morphology. Clonorchiasis, caused by C. sinensis infection, is an important food-borne parasitic disease and one of the most common zoonoses. C. sinensis infection could result in hyperplasia of the bile duct epithelium, obstructive jaundice, gall-stones, cholecystitis and cholangitis, even liver cirrhosis and cholangiocarcinoma. Thus, clonorchiasis is a serious public health problem in endemic areas. Integrated strategies should be adopted in the prevention and control of clonorchiasis due to the epidemiological characteristics. The recent advances in high-throughput technologies have made available the profiling of multiple layers of a biological system, genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. These data can help us to get more information about the development, physiology, metabolism, and reproduction of the parasite as well as pathogenesis and parasite-host interactions in clonorchiasis. In the present study, we summarized recent progresses in omics studies on C. sinensis providing insights into the studies and future directions on treating and preventing C. sinensis associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nian Wang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Diseases-vectors Control, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhuanling Zhang
- School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Lisi Huang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Department of Clinical Laboratory, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510120, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Tingjin Chen
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Diseases-vectors Control, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinbing Yu
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Diseases-vectors Control, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Huang
- Department of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China; Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Diseases-vectors Control, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
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2
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Zhang J, Sun Y, Zheng J. Prospects for liver fluke vaccines. Exp Parasitol 2021; 230:108170. [PMID: 34699916 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2021.108170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Fasciola spp., Opisthorchis spp. and Clonorchis sinensis are common liver flukes that can cause a variety of diseases, mainly cholangiocarcinoma induced by clonorchiasis and liver damage and associated pathology induced by fascioliasis. Because these trematodes are parasites of humans and domestic animals, they have greatly affected the economy of agricultural industries and public health worldwide. Due to the emergence of drug resistance and the living habits of flukes, among other reasons, a possibility of reinfection remains even when antiparasitic drugs are used. Therefore, developing a safe, efficient and cost-effective vaccine against trematodes is an important goal. Here, we briefly describe the progress in the development of vaccines against liver flukes. Related innovations may provide effective protection against these helminths and the diseases that they cause.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, Changchun, Xinmin Street NO.71, 130021, China; Department of Pathogenobiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Jilin, Changchun Xinmin Street NO.126, 130000, China.
| | - Ying Sun
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Xinmin Street NO.71, 130021, China.
| | - Jingtong Zheng
- Department of Pathogenobiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Jilin, Changchun Xinmin Street NO.126, 130000, China.
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3
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Thomas CM, Timson DJ. The Schistosoma mansoni tegumental allergen protein, SmTAL1: Binding to an IQ-motif from a voltage-gated ion channel and effects of praziquantel. Cell Calcium 2020; 86:102161. [PMID: 31981914 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2020.102161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
SmTAL1 is a calcium binding protein from the parasitic worm, Schistosoma mansoni. Structurally it is comprised of two domains - an N-terminal EF-hand domain and a C-terminal dynein light chain (DLC)-like domain. The protein has previously been shown to interact with the anti-schistosomal drug, praziquantel (PZQ). Here, we demonstrated that both EF-hands in the N-terminal domain are functional calcium ion binding sites. The second EF-hand appears to be more important in dictating affinity and mediating the conformational changes which occur on calcium ion binding. There is positive cooperativity between the four calcium ion binding sites in the dimeric form of SmTAL1. Both the EF-hand domain and the DLC-domain dimerise independently suggesting that both play a role in forming the SmTAL1 dimer. SmTAL1 binds non-cooperatively to PZQ and cooperatively to an IQ-motif from SmCav1B, a voltage-gated calcium channel. PZQ tends to strengthen this interaction, although the relationship is complex. These data suggest the hypothesis that SmTAL1 regulates at least one voltage-gated calcium channel and PZQ interferes with this process. This may be important in the molecular mechanism of this drug. It also suggests that compounds which bind SmTAL1, such as six from the Medicines for Malaria Box identified in this work, may represent possible leads for the discovery of novel antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte M Thomas
- School of Biological Sciences and Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7BL, UK
| | - David J Timson
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Huxley Building, Lewes Road, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK.
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Villalobo A, González-Muñoz M, Berchtold MW. Proteins with calmodulin-like domains: structures and functional roles. Cell Mol Life Sci 2019; 76:2299-2328. [PMID: 30877334 PMCID: PMC11105222 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-019-03062-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The appearance of modular proteins is a widespread phenomenon during the evolution of proteins. The combinatorial arrangement of different functional and/or structural domains within a single polypeptide chain yields a wide variety of activities and regulatory properties to the modular proteins. In this review, we will discuss proteins, that in addition to their catalytic, transport, structure, localization or adaptor functions, also have segments resembling the helix-loop-helix EF-hand motifs found in Ca2+-binding proteins, such as calmodulin (CaM). These segments are denoted CaM-like domains (CaM-LDs) and play a regulatory role, making these CaM-like proteins sensitive to Ca2+ transients within the cell, and hence are able to transduce the Ca2+ signal leading to specific cellular responses. Importantly, this arrangement allows to this group of proteins direct regulation independent of other Ca2+-sensitive sensor/transducer proteins, such as CaM. In addition, this review also covers CaM-binding proteins, in which their CaM-binding site (CBS), in the absence of CaM, is proposed to interact with other segments of the same protein denoted CaM-like binding site (CLBS). CLBS are important regulatory motifs, acting either by keeping these CaM-binding proteins inactive in the absence of CaM, enhancing the stability of protein complexes and/or facilitating their dimerization via CBS/CLBS interaction. The existence of proteins containing CaM-LDs or CLBSs substantially adds to the enormous versatility and complexity of Ca2+/CaM signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Villalobo
- Department of Cancer Biology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Arturo Duperier 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain.
- Instituto de Investigaciones Sanitarias, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Edificio IdiPAZ, Paseo de la Castellana 261, 28046, Madrid, Spain.
| | - María González-Muñoz
- Department of Cancer Biology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Arturo Duperier 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - Martin W Berchtold
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, 13 Universitetsparken, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Pereira ASA, Amaral MS, Vasconcelos EJR, Pires DS, Asif H, daSilva LF, Morales-Vicente DA, Carneiro VC, Angeli CB, Palmisano G, Fantappie MR, Pierce RJ, Setubal JC, Verjovski-Almeida S. Inhibition of histone methyltransferase EZH2 in Schistosoma mansoni in vitro by GSK343 reduces egg laying and decreases the expression of genes implicated in DNA replication and noncoding RNA metabolism. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006873. [PMID: 30365505 PMCID: PMC6221359 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The possibility of emergence of praziquantel-resistant Schistosoma parasites and the lack of other effective drugs demand the discovery of new schistosomicidal agents. In this context the study of compounds that target histone-modifying enzymes is extremely promising. Our aim was to investigate the effect of inhibition of EZH2, a histone methyltransferase that is involved in chromatin remodeling processes and gene expression control; we tested different developmental forms of Schistosoma mansoni using GKS343, a selective inhibitor of EZH2 in human cells. Methodology/Principal findings Adult male and female worms and schistosomula were treated with different concentrations of GSK343 for up to two days in vitro. Western blotting showed a decrease in the H3K27me3 histone mark in all three developmental forms. Motility, mortality, pairing and egg laying were employed as schistosomicidal parameters for adult worms. Schistosomula viability was evaluated with propidium iodide staining and ATP quantification. Adult worms showed decreased motility when exposed to GSK343. Also, an approximate 40% reduction of egg laying by GSK343-treated females was observed when compared with controls (0.1% DMSO). Scanning electron microscopy showed the formation of bulges and bubbles throughout the dorsal region of GSK343-treated adult worms. In schistosomula the body was extremely contracted with the presence of numerous folds, and growth was markedly slowed. RNA-seq was applied to identify the metabolic pathways affected by GSK343 sublethal doses. GSK343-treated adult worms showed significantly altered expression of genes related to transmembrane transport, cellular homeostasis and egg development. In females, genes related to DNA replication and noncoding RNA metabolism processes were downregulated. Schistosomula showed altered expression of genes related to cell adhesion and membrane synthesis pathways. Conclusions/Significance The results indicated that GSK343 presents in vitro activities against S. mansoni, and the characterization of EZH2 as a new potential molecular target establishes EZH2 inhibitors as part of a promising new group of compounds that could be used for the development of schistosomicidal agents. Schistosomiasis is a chronic and debilitating disease caused by a trematode of the genus Schistosoma. The current strategy for the control of the disease involves treatment with praziquantel, the only available drug. The development of new drugs is therefore a top priority. Drugs that inhibit histone modifying enzymes have been used in cancer, altering gene expression, replication, repair and DNA recombination. Schistosoma parasites have some characteristics similar to malignant tumors, such as intense cell division and high levels of metabolic activity. Here we evaluate in Schistosoma mansoni the effect of GSK343, an inhibitor of the histone methyltransferase EZH2 that had been shown to arrest or reduce the growth of human cancer cells. We show that GSK343 causes damage to the parasite tegument and reduces egg laying in vitro, concomitant with a decrease in levels of H3K27me3, the histone mark put in place by EZH2. RNA-seq and proteomic analyses of treated parasites showed changes in the expression of hundreds of genes involved in important metabolic processes. In females, a marked decrease was observed in the expression of genes related to processes such as DNA replication and noncoding RNA metabolism. In conclusion, the histone methyltransferase EZH2 seems to be a promising novel drug target against schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana S. A. Pereira
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Murilo S. Amaral
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Elton J. R. Vasconcelos
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - David S. Pires
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Huma Asif
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Lucas F. daSilva
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - David A. Morales-Vicente
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Vitor C. Carneiro
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Claudia B. Angeli
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, Laboratório de Glicoproteômica, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Giuseppe Palmisano
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Departamento de Parasitologia, Laboratório de Glicoproteômica, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Marcelo R. Fantappie
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Raymond J. Pierce
- Centre d'Infection et d'Immunité de Lille, CNRS UMR 8204, Inserm U1019, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, Université de Lille, Lille, France
| | - João C. Setubal
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Sergio Verjovski-Almeida
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
- * E-mail:
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6
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Zheng Y, Guo X, Su M, Chen X, Jin X, Ding J, Wang Z, Bo X, Ayaz M, Kutyrev I, Jia W, Zhang X, Zhang J. Identification of emu-TegP11, an EF-hand domain-containing tegumental protein of Echinococcus multilocularis. Vet Parasitol 2018; 255:107-113. [PMID: 29773130 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2018.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Tegumental proteins (TegPs) are a group of proteins that coat on the surface of worms, mainly being involved in ion uptake and immune evasion. Echinococcus species have many TegPs, but none of them have been characterized and their role remains unclear. The genome-wide analysis revealed that there were at least 14 tegp genes (tegp1 - 14) in Echinococcus species, the majority of which were found to contain an EF-hand domain or a dynein light chain-like domain or both. Despite low identity, all TegP11 proteins from 25 flatworms were conserved in structure. Echinococcus multilocularis TegP11 (emu-TegP11) was verified to be secreted by extracellular vesicles and to be localized in different spatiotemporal patterns in protoscoleces. Moreover, emu-TegP11 was also shown to have weak or no Ca2+-binding capacity. In treated macrophages, emu-TegP11 interfered with the small RNA-induced silencing pathway via inducing ectopic expression of some key component genes. Additionally, emu-TegP11 remarkably promoted NO secretion possibly by upregulation of inos gene expression (p < 0.05). It was further shown that emu-TegP11 acted as a suppressor of inflammation, with il-12B and il-1β being significantly down-regulated (p < 0.01), and il-10 and il-4 being significantly upregulated (p < 0.05). The study demonstrates a regulatory role of emu-TegP11, likely acting as a immunomodulator to be involved in regulation of host immune system during Echinococcus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yadong Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Lanzhou 730046, China; Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou 225009, China.
| | - Xiaola Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Lanzhou 730046, China
| | - Meng Su
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Lanzhou 730046, China
| | - Xiaoqian Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Lanzhou 730046, China
| | - Xiaoliang Jin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Juntao Ding
- College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumqi, China
| | - Zhengrong Wang
- Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural and Reclamation Science/State Key Laboratory for Sheep Genetic Improvement and Healthy Production, Shihezi 832000, China
| | - Xinwen Bo
- Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural and Reclamation Science/State Key Laboratory for Sheep Genetic Improvement and Healthy Production, Shihezi 832000, China
| | - Mazhar Ayaz
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan
| | - Ivan Kutyrev
- Institute of General and Experimental Biology, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Sakhyanovoi St. 6, 670047 Ulan-Ude, Russia
| | - Wanzhong Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Lanzhou 730046, China
| | - Xichen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention; Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health; National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases; WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Shanghai 200025, China.
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7
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Carson J, Thomas CM, McGinty A, Takata G, Timson DJ. The tegumental allergen-like proteins of Schistosoma mansoni: A biochemical study of SmTAL4-TAL13. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2018; 221:14-22. [PMID: 29453993 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Schistosoma mansoni, like other trematodes, expresses a number of unusual calcium binding proteins which consist of an EF-hand domain joined to a dynein light chain-like (DLC-like) domain by a flexible linker. These proteins have been implicated in host immune responses and drug binding. Three members of this protein family from S. mansoni (SmTAL1, SmTAL2 and SmTAL3) have been well characterised biochemically. Here we characterise the remaining family members from this species (SmTAL4-13). All of these proteins form homodimers and all except SmTAL5 bind to calcium and manganese ions. SmTAL9, 10 and 11 also bind to magnesium ions. The antischistosomal drug, praziquantel interacts with SmTAL4, 5 and 8. Some family members also bind to calmodulin antagonists such as chlorpromazine and trifluoperazine. Molecular modelling suggests that all ten proteins adopt similar overall folds with the EF-hand and DLC-like domains folding discretely. Bioinformatics analyses suggest that the proteins may fall into two main categories: (i) those which bind calcium ions reversibly at the second EF-hand and may play a role in signalling (SmTAL1, 2, 8 and 12) and (ii) those which bind calcium ions at the first EF-hand and may play either signalling or structural roles (SmTAL7, 9, 10 and 13). The remaining proteins include those which do not bind calcium ions (SmTAL3 and 5) and three other proteins (SmTAL4, 6 and 11). The roles of these proteins are less clear, but they may also have structural roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack Carson
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Charlotte M Thomas
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University Belfast, 18-30 Malone Road, Belfast BT9 5BN, UK
| | - Aaron McGinty
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Whitla Medical Building, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Gustavo Takata
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK
| | - David J Timson
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK; School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Huxley Building, Lewes Road, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK.
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