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Vizon C, Urbanowiez A, Raviglione D, Bonnard I, Nugues MM. Benthic cyanobacterial metabolites interact to reduce coral larval survival and settlement. HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 132:102582. [PMID: 38331546 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Benthic cyanobacterial mats (BCMs) are becoming increasingly abundant on coral reefs worldwide. High growth rates and prolific toxin production give them the potential to cause widespread coral recruitment failure through allelopathic effects, but few studies have made the link between their toxicity for coral larvae and in situ toxin concentrations. Here we investigated the allelopathic effects of the benthic cyanobacterium Anabaena sp.1 on larvae of the coral Pocillopora acuta. This cyanobacterium produces several non-ribosomal cyclic lipopeptides of the laxaphycin family with cytotoxic properties. Therefore, we measured the concentration of laxaphycins A and B in Anabaena mats and in the water column and tested their effects on coral larvae. We found that Anabaena crude extract reduces both larval survivorship and settlement and that laxaphycin B reduces settlement. When larvae were exposed to both laxaphycins, there was a reduction in both larval survival and settlement. In the natural reef environment, laxaphycin A and B concentrations increased with increasing proximity to Anabaena mats, with concentrations being consistently above LC50 and EC50 thresholds within a 1 cm distance of the mats. This study demonstrates that laxaphycins reduce the survival and inhibit the settlement of coral larvae at concentrations found near Anabaena mats in situ. It further shows a combined effect between two cyanobacterial metabolites. As BCMs become more common, more of their secondary metabolites might be released in the water column. Their occurrence will lead to a reduction in coral recruitment rates, contributing to the continuing decline of coral reefs and shift in community structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Vizon
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, UAR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 52 avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan, France.
| | - Axel Urbanowiez
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, UAR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 52 avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan, France
| | - Delphine Raviglione
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, UAR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 52 avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan, France; Plateau technique MSXM, Plateforme Bio2mar, Université de Perpignan via Domitia, Perpignan, Cedex 9, France
| | - Isabelle Bonnard
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, UAR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 52 avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan, France; Plateau technique MSXM, Plateforme Bio2mar, Université de Perpignan via Domitia, Perpignan, Cedex 9, France; Laboratoire d'Excellence Corail, 66860 Perpignan, France
| | - Maggy M Nugues
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, UAR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 52 avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan, France; Laboratoire d'Excellence Corail, 66860 Perpignan, France
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2
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Carlson RR, Crowder LB, Martin RE, Asner GP. The effect of reef morphology on coral recruitment at multiple spatial scales. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2311661121. [PMID: 38190515 PMCID: PMC10823213 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2311661121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Coral reefs are in decline worldwide, making it increasingly important to promote coral recruitment in new or degraded habitat. Coral reef morphology-the structural form of reef substrate-affects many aspects of reef function, yet the effect of reef morphology on coral recruitment is not well understood. We used structure-from-motion photogrammetry and airborne remote sensing to measure reef morphology (rugosity, curvature, slope, and fractal dimension) across a broad continuum of spatial scales and evaluated the effect of morphology on coral recruitment in three broadcast-spawning genera. We also measured the effect of other environmental and biotic factors such as fish density, adult coral cover, hydrodynamic larval import, and depth on coral recruitment. All variables combined explained 72% of coral recruitment in the study region. Coarse reef rugosity and curvature mapped at ≥2 m spatial resolution-such as large colonies, knolls, and boulders-were positively correlated with coral recruitment, explaining 22% of variation in recruitment. Morphology mapped at finer scales (≤32 cm resolution) was not significant. Hydrodynamic larval import was also positively related to coral recruitment in Porites and Montipora spp., and grazer fish density was linked to significantly lower recruitment in all genera. In addition, grazer density, reef morphology, and hydrodynamic import had differential effects on coral genera, reflecting genus-specific life history traits, and model performance was lower in gonochoric species. Overall, coral reef morphology is a key indicator of recruitment potential that can be detected by remote sensing, allowing potential larval sinks to be identified and factored into restoration actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel R. Carlson
- Emmett Interdisciplinary Program in Environment and Resources, Doerr School of Sustainability, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
- Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, Hilo, HI96720
| | - Larry B. Crowder
- Emmett Interdisciplinary Program in Environment and Resources, Doerr School of Sustainability, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Roberta E. Martin
- Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, Hilo, HI96720
| | - Gregory P. Asner
- Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, Hilo, HI96720
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3
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Doust SN, Haghshenas SA, Bishop EE, Risk MJ, Downs CA. Fine-scale geographic risk assessment of oxybenzone sunscreen pollution within Hanauma Bay using hydrodynamic characterization and modeling. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 906:167614. [PMID: 37804976 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
Hanauma Bay's coral reef system is threatened by sunscreen pollution. Understanding the hydrodynamic nature of the bay is crucial for understanding the transport and fate of pollutants within the bay. This study conducted a comprehensive hydrodynamic analysis, revealing significant aspects of current patterns and their influence on sunscreen pollutant behavior. The analysis demonstrated the formation of flows that drive currents parallel to the shoreline, resulting in increased pollutant retention time over sensitive reef areas. Direct flushing currents were identified as playing a role in reducing pollution buildup. Particle dynamics analysis highlighted the importance of considering temporal dynamics and their implications for pollutant pathways, particularly through the swash zone during high tide phases. The study identified primary current patterns near the reef area and emphasized the circular behavior within the water body, affecting corals' susceptibility to bleaching in the southwestern part of Hanauma bay. To understand where oxybenzone concentrations were a threat to wildlife, we created a geographic model that integrated ecological risk assessment with hydrodynamic behavior in a given system, which we designate the Risk Quotient Plume - the geographic area where the concentration is above the threat level for a chemical. The study found high oxybenzone concentrations throughout the bay, threatening coral, fish, and algae populations. Oxybenzone's distribution indicated a serious threat to the entire back reef habitat and a hinderance to coral restoration efforts. The study also emphasizes the need to consider the hydrodynamic behavior of pollutants and their interaction with microplastics in the bay. Overall, the findings provide insights into hydrodynamics and pollutant dispersion in Hanauma Bay, supporting effective pollution management and conservation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shadan Nasseri Doust
- Institute of Geophysics, University of Tehran, North Kargar Ave., Tehran 1439951113, Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - S Abbas Haghshenas
- Institute of Geophysics, University of Tehran, North Kargar Ave., Tehran 1439951113, Islamic Republic of Iran.
| | - Elizabeth E Bishop
- Friends of Hanauma Bay, P.O. Box 25761, Honolulu, HI 96825-07610, United States of America
| | - Michael J Risk
- School of Geography and Geology, McMaster University, N0G 1R0, Canada
| | - C A Downs
- Haereticus Environmental Laboratory, P.O. Box 92, Clifford, VA 24533, United States of America.
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4
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Stahl F, Mezger SD, Migani V, Rohlfs M, Fahey VJ, Schoenig E, Wild C. Recent and rapid reef recovery around Koh Phangan Island, Gulf of Thailand, driven by plate-like hard corals. PeerJ 2023; 11:e16115. [PMID: 38025748 PMCID: PMC10640840 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.16115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mass bleaching events and local anthropogenic influences have changed the benthic communities of many coral reefs with pronounced spatial differences that are linked to resilience patterns. The Gulf of Thailand is an under-investigated region with only few existing datasets containing long-term developments of coral reef communities using the same method at fixed sites. We thus analyzed benthic community data from seven reefs surrounding the island of Koh Phangan collected between 2014 and 2022. Findings revealed that the average live hard coral cover around Koh Phangan increased from 37% to 55% over the observation period, while turf algae cover decreased from 52% to 29%, indicating some recovery of local reefs. This corresponds to a mean increased rate of coral cover by 2.2% per year. The increase in live hard coral cover was mainly driven by plate-like corals, which quadrupled in proportion over the last decade from 7% to 28% while branching corals decreased in proportion from 9% to 2%. Furthermore, the hard coral genus richness increased, indicating an increased hard coral diversity. While in other reefs, increasing live hard coral cover is often attributed to fast-growing, branching coral species, considered more susceptible to bleaching and other disturbances, the reefs around Koh Phangan recovered mainly via growth of plate-like corals, particularly of the genus Montipora. Although plate-like morphologies are not necessarily more bleaching tolerant, they are important for supporting reef fish abundance and structural complexity on reefs, aiding reef recovery and sturdiness. Hence, our findings indicate that the intensity of local stressors around Kho Phangan allows reef recovery driven by some hard coral species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Stahl
- Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, Marine Botany Group, Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany
- Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, Marine Ecology Group, Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Selma D. Mezger
- Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, Marine Ecology Group, Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Valentina Migani
- Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, Evolutionary Biology Group, Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Marko Rohlfs
- Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, Chemical Ecology Group, Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Victoria J. Fahey
- Center for Oceanic Research and Education (COREsea), Chaloklum, Koh Phangan, Thailand
| | - Eike Schoenig
- Center for Oceanic Research and Education (COREsea), Chaloklum, Koh Phangan, Thailand
| | - Christian Wild
- Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, Marine Ecology Group, Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany
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5
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Martínez-Quintana Á, Lasker HR, Wilson AM. Three-dimensional species distribution modelling reveals the realized spatial niche for coral recruitment on contemporary Caribbean reefs. Ecol Lett 2023; 26:1497-1509. [PMID: 37380335 DOI: 10.1111/ele.14281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
The three-dimensional structure of habitats is a critical component of species' niches driving coexistence in species-rich ecosystems. However, its influence on structuring and partitioning recruitment niches has not been widely addressed. We developed a new method to combine species distribution modelling and structure from motion, and characterized three-dimensional recruitment niches of two ecosystem engineers on Caribbean coral reefs, scleractinian corals and gorgonians. Fine-scale roughness was the most important predictor of suitable habitat for both taxa, and their niches largely overlapped, primarily due to scleractinians' broader niche breadth. Crevices and holes at mm scales on calcareous rock with low coral cover were more suitable for octocorals than for scleractinian recruits, suggesting that the decline in scleractinian corals is facilitating the recruitment of octocorals on contemporary Caribbean reefs. However, the relative abundances of the taxa were independent of the amount of suitable habitat on the reef, emphasizing that niche processes alone do not predict recruitment rates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Howard R Lasker
- Department of Environment and Sustainability, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
- Department of Geology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Adam M Wilson
- Department of Geography, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
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6
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Bellworthy J, Pardo R, Scucchia F, Zaslansky P, Goodbody-Gringley G, Mass T. Physiological and morphological plasticity in Stylophora pistillata larvae from Eilat, Israel, to shallow and mesophotic light conditions. iScience 2023; 26:106969. [PMID: 37534177 PMCID: PMC10391605 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Mesophotic reefs have been proposed as climate change refugia but are not synonymous ecosystems with shallow reefs and remain exposed to anthropogenic impacts. Planulae from the reef-building coral Stylophora pistillata, Gulf of Aqaba, from 5- and 45-m depth were tested ex situ for capacity to settle, grow, and acclimate to reciprocal light conditions. Skeletons were scanned by phase contrast-enhanced micro-CT to study morphology. Deep planulae had reduced volume, smaller diameter on settlement, and greater algal symbiont density. Light conditions did not have significant impact on settlement or mortality rates. Photosynthetic acclimation of algal symbionts was evident within 21-35 days after settlement but growth rate and polyp development were slower for individuals translocated away from their parental origin compared to controls. Though our data reveal rapid symbiont acclimation, reduced growth rates and limited capacity for skeletal modification likely limit the potential for mesophotic larvae to settle on shallow reefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Bellworthy
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- Interuniversity Institute of Marine Sciences, Eilat, Israel
| | - Rachel Pardo
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Federica Scucchia
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- Interuniversity Institute of Marine Sciences, Eilat, Israel
| | - Paul Zaslansky
- Department for Operative and Preventive Dentistry, Charité Dental School – Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Tali Mass
- Department of Marine Biology, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- Morris Kahn Marine Research Station, The Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa, Sdot Yam, Israel
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7
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Takeda-Sakazume A, Honjo J, Sasano S, Matsushima K, Baba SA, Mogami Y, Hatta M. Gravitactic Swimming of the Planula Larva of the Coral Acropora: Characterization of Straightforward Vertical Swimming. Zoolog Sci 2023; 40:44-52. [PMID: 36744709 DOI: 10.2108/zs220043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Vertical migration as well as horizontal dispersion is important in the ecological strategy of planktonic larvae of sedentary corals. We report in this paper unique vertical swimming behavior of planulae of the reef-building coral Acropora tenuis. Several days after fertilization, most of the planulae stayed exclusively at either the top or the bottom of the rearing tank. A good proportion of the planulae migrated almost vertically between top and bottom with fairly straight trajectories. Planulae sometimes switched their swimming direction via a sharp turn between the opposite directions. Quantitative analyses demonstrated that planulae kept constant speed while swimming either upward or downward, in contrast to frequent changes of direction and speed in horizontal swimming. Statistical comparison of propulsive speeds, estimated from swimming speeds and passive sedimentation, revealed gravikinesis of planulae, where the propulsive speed was significantly greater in downward swimming than upward swimming. The larval density hydrodynamically estimated was 0.25% lower than sea water density, which might be explained by the large quantity of lipids in planulae. Also, the deciliated larvae tended to orient oral end-up during floatation, presumably due to asymmetrical distribution of the endogenous light lipids. Plasticity of the larval tissue geometry could easily cause relocation of the center of forces which work together to generate gravitactic-orientation torque and, therefore, abrupt changing of the gravitactic swimming direction. The bimodal gravitactic behavior may give a new insight into dispersal and recruitment of coral larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asuka Takeda-Sakazume
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo 112-8610, Japan
| | - Junko Honjo
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo 112-8610, Japan
| | - Sachia Sasano
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo 112-8610, Japan
| | - Kanae Matsushima
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo 112-8610, Japan
| | - Shoji A Baba
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo 112-8610, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Mogami
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo 112-8610, Japan
| | - Masayuki Hatta
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo 112-8610, Japan,
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8
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Crivellaro MS, Candido DV, Silveira TCL, Fonseca AC, Segal B. A tool for a race against time: Dispersal simulations to support ongoing monitoring program of the invasive coral Tubastraea coccinea. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2022; 185:114354. [PMID: 36401946 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.114354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Preventing, detecting, and monitoring invasive marine species is a big challenge as it is not possible to visualize all invasion extensions. Their early detection may be the best chance to achieve eradication. The Indo-pacific scleractinian coral Tubastraea coccinea invasion in the Atlantic dates from the late 1930s. Since then, disruptive populations were found along ~8.000 km of west Atlantic, and in the Canarian Islands of Spain (east Atlantic), related to vessel fouling in the oil and gas industry. Their impacts have been noticed from endemic species to ecosystems. In Brazil, initiatives to control Tubastraea spp. have been done mostly by local environmental managers and researchers, but recently a National Plan for Prevention, Control and Monitoring (NPPCM) for Tubastraea spp. was approved. We applied an Individual-based Model within the invasion history of Tubastraea coccinea in its southern distribution limit in the Atlantic, on the rocky shore of the Arvoredo Biological Marine Reserve. We indicated hotspots for the occurrence of possible emerging invasion sites in the region and expect to support ongoing monitoring programs in defining priority areas for their early detection. The model is easily replicated and might be a valuable tool for decision makers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Schuler Crivellaro
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
| | - Davi Volney Candido
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Thiago Cesar Lima Silveira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | | | - Bárbara Segal
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
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9
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Murphy EAK, Barros JM, Schultz MP, Flack KA, Steppe CN, Reidenbach MA. Boundary layer hydrodynamics of patchy biofilms. BIOFOULING 2022; 38:696-714. [PMID: 36062568 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2022.2117033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Algal biofilms, ubiquitous in aquatic systems, reduce the performance of engineered systems and alter ecosystem processes. Biofilm morphology is dynamic throughout community development, with patchiness occurring due to periodic sloughing, but little is known about how community level physical structure affects hydrodynamics. This study uses high resolution particle image velocimetry (PIV) to examine spatially explicit turbulence over sparse, uniform and patchy biofilm at turbulent Reynolds numbers. All biofilms increase the near-bed turbulence production, Reynolds shear stress, and rotational flow compared to a smooth wall, and non-uniform biofilms have the greatest increase in these parameters, compared with a uniform or sparse biofilm. However, a higher drag coefficient over uniform biofilm compared with non-uniform biofilm indicates that percent coverage (the amount of area covered by the biofilm) is a useful predictor of a biofilm's relative effect on the total drag along surfaces, and in particular the effect on ship performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A K Murphy
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA
| | - Julio M Barros
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, USA
| | - Michael P Schultz
- Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, USA
| | - Karen A Flack
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, USA
| | - Cecily N Steppe
- Department of Oceanography, United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, USA
| | - Matthew A Reidenbach
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA
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10
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Prasetia R, Sinniger F, Nakamura T, Harii S. Limited acclimation of early life stages of the coral Seriatopora hystrix from mesophotic depth to shallow reefs. Sci Rep 2022; 12:12836. [PMID: 35896607 PMCID: PMC9329301 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-16024-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs, reefs between 30 and 150 m depth) have been hypothesized to contribute to shallow reef recovery through the recruitment of larvae. However, few studies have directly examined this. Here we used mesophotic colonies of Seriatopora hystrix, a depth generalist coral, to investigate the effect of light intensity on larval behavior and settlement through ex situ experiments. We also investigated juvenile survival, growth, and physiological acclimation in situ. Bleached larvae and a significant reduction in settlement rates were found when the mesophotic larvae were exposed to light conditions corresponding to shallow depths (5 and 10 m) ex situ. The in situ experiments showed that mesophotic juveniles survived well at 20 and 40 m, with juveniles in shaded areas surviving longer than three months at 3–5 m during a year of mass bleaching in 2016. Juvenile transplants at 20 m showed a sign of physiological acclimation, which was reflected by a significant decline in maximum quantum yield. These results suggest that light is a significant factor for successful recolonization of depth-generalist corals to shallow reefs. Further, recolonization of shallow reefs may only occur in shaded habitats or potentially through multigenerational recruitments with intermediate depths acting as stepping stones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rian Prasetia
- Sesoko Station, Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the Ryukyus, Sesoko 3422, Motobu, Okinawa, 905-0227, Japan
| | - Frederic Sinniger
- Sesoko Station, Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the Ryukyus, Sesoko 3422, Motobu, Okinawa, 905-0227, Japan
| | - Takashi Nakamura
- Sesoko Station, Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the Ryukyus, Sesoko 3422, Motobu, Okinawa, 905-0227, Japan.,Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, 903-0213, Japan
| | - Saki Harii
- Sesoko Station, Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the Ryukyus, Sesoko 3422, Motobu, Okinawa, 905-0227, Japan.
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11
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Komyakova V, Jaffrés JBD, Strain EMA, Cullen-Knox C, Fudge M, Langhamer O, Bender A, Yaakub SM, Wilson E, Allan BJM, Sella I, Haward M. Conceptualisation of multiple impacts interacting in the marine environment using marine infrastructure as an example. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 830:154748. [PMID: 35337877 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The human population is increasingly reliant on the marine environment for food, trade, tourism, transport, communication and other vital ecosystem services. These services require extensive marine infrastructure, all of which have direct or indirect ecological impacts on marine environments. The rise in global marine infrastructure has led to light, noise and chemical pollution, as well as facilitation of biological invasions. As a result, marine systems and associated species are under increased pressure from habitat loss and degradation, formation of ecological traps and increased mortality, all of which can lead to reduced resilience and consequently increased invasive species establishment. Whereas the cumulative bearings of collective human impacts on marine populations have previously been demonstrated, the multiple impacts associated with marine infrastructure have not been well explored. Here, building on ecological literature, we explore the impacts that are associated with marine infrastructure, conceptualising the notion of correlative, interactive and cumulative effects of anthropogenic activities on the marine environment. By reviewing the range of mitigation approaches that are currently available, we consider the role that eco-engineering, marine spatial planning and agent-based modelling plays in complementing the design and placement of marine structures to incorporate the existing connectivity pathways, ecological principles and complexity of the environment. Because the effect of human-induced, rapid environmental change is predicted to increase in response to the growth of the human population, this study demonstrates that the development and implementation of legislative framework, innovative technologies and nature-informed solutions are vital, preventative measures to mitigate the multiple impacts associated with marine infrastructure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeriya Komyakova
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia; Centre for Marine Socioecology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7053, Australia.
| | - Jasmine B D Jaffrés
- C&R Consulting, Townsville, Australia; College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
| | - Elisabeth M A Strain
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia; Centre for Marine Socioecology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7053, Australia
| | - Coco Cullen-Knox
- Centre for Marine Socioecology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7053, Australia
| | - Maree Fudge
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia; Centre for Marine Socioecology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7053, Australia; College of Business and Economics, University of Tasmania, Australia
| | - Olivia Langhamer
- Division of Electricity, Department of Electrical Engineering, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Anke Bender
- Division of Electricity, Department of Electrical Engineering, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Siti M Yaakub
- Sustainability & Climate Solutions Department, DHI Water & Environment (S), Singapore
| | - Eloise Wilson
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia; Centre for Marine Socioecology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7053, Australia
| | - Bridie J M Allan
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | | | - Marcus Haward
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia; Centre for Marine Socioecology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7053, Australia; Blue Economy Cooperative Research Centre, PO Box 897, Launceston, Tasmania 7250, Australia
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12
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Strickland WC, Battista NA, Hamlet CL, Miller LA. Planktos: An Agent-Based Modeling Framework for Small Organism Movement and Dispersal in a Fluid Environment with Immersed Structures. Bull Math Biol 2022; 84:72. [PMID: 35689123 DOI: 10.1007/s11538-022-01027-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Multiscale modeling of marine and aerial plankton has traditionally been difficult to address holistically due to the challenge of resolving individual locomotion dynamics while being carried with larger-scale flows. However, such problems are of paramount importance, e.g., dispersal of marine larval plankton is critical for the health of coral reefs, and aerial plankton (tiny arthropods) can be used as effective agricultural biocontrol agents. Here we introduce the open-source, agent-based modeling software Planktos targeted at 2D and 3D fluid environments in Python. Agents in this modeling framework are relatively tiny organisms in sufficiently low densities that their effect on the surrounding fluid motion can be considered negligible. This library can be used for scientific exploration and quantification of collective and emergent behavior, including interaction with immersed structures. In this paper, we detail the implementation and functionality of the library along with some illustrative examples. Functionality includes arbitrary agent behavior obeying either ordinary differential equations, stochastic differential equations, or coded movement algorithms, all under the influence of time-dependent fluid velocity fields generated by computational fluid dynamics, experiments, or analytical models in domains with static immersed mesh structures with sliding or sticky collisions. In addition, data visualization tools provide images or animations with kernel density estimation and velocity field analysis with respect to deterministic agent behavior via the finite-time Lyapunov exponent.
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Affiliation(s)
- W C Strickland
- Department of Mathematics, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 227 Ayres Hall, Knoxville, TN, 37996-1320, USA.
| | - N A Battista
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, The College of New Jersey, Ewing Township, NJ, 08628, USA
| | - C L Hamlet
- Department of Mathematics, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA, 17837, USA
| | - L A Miller
- Department of Mathematics, University of Arizona, 617 N. Santa Rita Ave., Tuscon, AZ, 85721-0089, USA
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13
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Siqueira AC, Kiessling W, Bellwood DR. Fast-growing species shape the evolution of reef corals. Nat Commun 2022; 13:2426. [PMID: 35504876 PMCID: PMC9065008 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30234-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ecological interactions are ubiquitous on tropical coral reefs, where sessile organisms coexist in limited space. Within these high-diversity systems, reef-building scleractinian corals form an intricate interaction network. The role of biotic interactions among reef corals is well established on ecological timescales. However, its potential effect on macroevolutionary patterns remains unclear. By analysing the rich fossil record of Scleractinia, we show that reef coral biodiversity experienced marked evolutionary rate shifts in the last 3 million years, possibly driven by biotic interactions. Our models suggest that there was an overwhelming effect of staghorn corals (family Acroporidae) on the fossil diversity trajectories of other coral groups. Staghorn corals showed an unparalleled spike in diversification during the Pleistocene. But surprisingly, their expansion was linked with increases in both extinction and speciation rates in other coral families, driving a nine-fold increase in lineage turnover. These results reveal a double-edged effect of diversity dependency on reef evolution. Given their fast growth, staghorn corals may have increased extinction rates via competitive interactions, while promoting speciation through their role as ecosystem engineers. This suggests that recent widespread human-mediated reductions in staghorn coral cover, may be disrupting the key macroevolutionary processes that established modern coral reef ecosystems. The effect of biotic interactions among reef corals on macroevolutionary patterns is unclear. Here, the authors study the rich coral fossil record, finding that reef coral diversity experienced potentially biotic interaction-driven evolutionary rate changes, and that Staghorn corals affected fossil diversity trajectories of other coral groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre C Siqueira
- Research Hub for Coral Reef Ecosystem Functions, College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, 4811, Australia. .,ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, 4811, Australia.
| | - Wolfgang Kiessling
- GeoZentrum Nordbayern, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen - Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - David R Bellwood
- Research Hub for Coral Reef Ecosystem Functions, College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, 4811, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, 4811, Australia
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14
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Mitchell N, Piatczyc NP, Wang DD, Edwards J. High-speed video and plant ultrastructure define mechanisms of gametophyte dispersal. APPLICATIONS IN PLANT SCIENCES 2022; 10:e11463. [PMID: 35495193 PMCID: PMC9039801 DOI: 10.1002/aps3.11463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Dispersal of gametophytes is critical for land plant survivorship and reproduction. It defines potential colonization and geographical distribution as well as genetic mixing and evolution. C. T. Ingold's classic works on Spore Discharge in Land Plants and Spore Liberation review mechanisms for spore release and dispersal based on real-time observations, basic histology, and light microscopy. Many mechanisms underlying spore liberation are explosive and have evolved independently multiple times. These mechanisms involve physiological processes such as water gain and loss, coupled with structural features using different plant tissues. Here we review how high-speed video and analyses of ultrastructure have defined new biomechanical mechanisms for the dispersal of gametophytes through the dissemination of haploid diaspores, including spores, pollen, and asexual reproductive propagules. This comparative review highlights the diversity and importance of rapid movements in plants for dispersing gametophytes and considerations for using combinations of high-speed video methods and microscopic techniques to understand these dispersal movements. A deeper understanding of these mechanisms is crucial not only for understanding gametophyte ecology but also for applied engineering and biomimetic applications used in human technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Mitchell
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Wisconsin–Eau ClaireEau Claire54701WisconsinUSA
| | - Nancy P. Piatczyc
- Biology DepartmentWilliams College, WilliamstownMassachusetts01267USA
| | - Darren D. Wang
- Biology DepartmentWilliams College, WilliamstownMassachusetts01267USA
| | - Joan Edwards
- Biology DepartmentWilliams College, WilliamstownMassachusetts01267USA
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15
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Leonard C, Hédouin L, Lacorne MC, Dalle J, Lapinski M, Blanc P, Nugues MM. Performance of innovative materials as recruitment substrates for coral restoration. Restor Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/rec.13625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Camille Leonard
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE‐UPVD‐CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, BP 1013, 98729 Papetoai, Moorea French Polynesia
| | - Laetitia Hédouin
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE‐UPVD‐CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, BP 1013, 98729 Papetoai, Moorea French Polynesia
- Laboratoire d'Excellence “CORAIL”, Papetoai, Moorea French Polynesia
| | - Margaux C. Lacorne
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE‐UPVD‐CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, BP 1013, 98729 Papetoai, Moorea French Polynesia
- Université des Antilles, Fouillole, Pointe‐à‐Pitre 97157 Guadeloupe
| | - Julien Dalle
- Seaboost, 889 rue de la Vieille Poste 34000 Montpellier France
| | | | | | - Maggy M. Nugues
- Laboratoire d'Excellence “CORAIL”, Papetoai, Moorea French Polynesia
- PSL Université Paris: EPHE‐UPVD‐CNRS, USR 3278 CRIOBE, Université de Perpignan, 52 Avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan Cedex France
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16
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Koester A, Ford AK, Ferse SCA, Migani V, Bunbury N, Sanchez C, Wild C. First insights into coral recruit and juvenile abundances at remote Aldabra Atoll, Seychelles. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260516. [PMID: 34874982 PMCID: PMC8651144 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Coral recruitment and successive growth are essential for post-disturbance reef recovery. As coral recruit and juvenile abundances vary across locations and under different environmental regimes, their assessment at remote, undisturbed reefs improves our understanding of early life stage dynamics of corals. Here, we first explored changes in coral juvenile abundance across three locations (lagoon, seaward west and east) at remote Aldabra Atoll (Seychelles) between 2015 and 2019, which spanned the 2015/16 global coral bleaching event. Secondly, we measured variation in coral recruit abundance on settlement tiles from two sites (lagoon, seaward reef) during August 2018-August 2019. Juvenile abundance decreased from 14.1 ± 1.2 to 7.4 ± 0.5 colonies m-2 (mean ± SE) during 2015-2016 and increased to 22.4 ± 1.2 colonies m-2 during 2016-2019. Whilst juvenile abundance increased two- to three-fold at the lagoonal and seaward western sites during 2016-2018 (from 7.7-8.3 to 17.3-24.7 colonies m-2), increases at the seaward eastern sites occurred later (2018-2019; from 5.8-6.9 to 16.6-24.1 colonies m-2). The composition of coral recruits on settlement tiles was dominated by Pocilloporidae (64-92% of all recruits), and recruit abundance was 7- to 47-fold higher inside than outside the lagoon. Recruit abundance was highest in October-December 2018 (2164 ± 453 recruits m-2) and lowest in June-August 2019 (240 ± 98 recruits m-2). As Acroporid recruit abundance corresponded to this trend, the results suggest that broadcast spawning occurred during October-December, when water temperature increased from 26 to 29°C. This study provides the first published record on coral recruit abundance in the Seychelles Outer Islands, indicates a rapid (2-3 years) increase of juvenile corals following a bleaching event, and provides crucial baseline data for future research on reef resilience and connectivity within the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Koester
- Marine Ecology Department, Faculty of Biology & Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
- Seychelles Islands Foundation, Victoria, Mahé, Seychelles
| | - Amanda K. Ford
- School of Agriculture, Geography, Environment, Ocean and Natural Sciences, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji
| | - Sebastian C. A. Ferse
- Marine Ecology Department, Faculty of Biology & Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
- Leibniz Centre for Tropical Marine Research, Bremen, Germany
| | - Valentina Migani
- Institute for Ecology, Faculty of Biology & Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Nancy Bunbury
- Seychelles Islands Foundation, Victoria, Mahé, Seychelles
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Cornwall Campus, Penryn, United Kingdom
| | - Cheryl Sanchez
- Seychelles Islands Foundation, Victoria, Mahé, Seychelles
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Christian Wild
- Marine Ecology Department, Faculty of Biology & Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
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17
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Factors Limiting the Range Extension of Corals into High-Latitude Reef Regions. DIVERSITY 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/d13120632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Reef-building corals show a marked decrease in total species richness from the tropics to high latitude regions. Several hypotheses have been proposed to account for this pattern in the context of abiotic and biotic factors, including temperature thresholds, light limitation, aragonite saturation, nutrient or sediment loads, larval dispersal constraints, competition with macro-algae or other invertebrates, and availability of suitable settlement cues or micro-algal symbionts. Surprisingly, there is a paucity of data supporting several of these hypotheses. Given the immense pressures faced by corals in the Anthropocene, it is critical to understand the factors limiting their distribution in order to predict potential range expansions and the role that high latitude reefs can play as refuges from climate change. This review examines these factors and outlines critical research areas to address knowledge gaps in our understanding of light/temperature interactions, coral-Symbiodiniaceae associations, settlement cues, and competition in high latitude reefs.
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18
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Soto D, De Palmas S, Ho M, Denis V, Allen Chen C. A molecular census of early-life stage scleractinian corals in shallow and mesophotic zones. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:14573-14584. [PMID: 34765126 PMCID: PMC8571570 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The decline of coral reefs has fueled interest in determining whether mesophotic reefs can shield against disturbances and help replenish deteriorated shallower reefs. In this study, we characterized spatial (horizontal and vertical) and seasonal patterns of diversity in coral recruits from Dabaisha and Guiwan reefs at Ludao, Taiwan. Concrete blocks supporting terra-cotta tiles were placed at shallow (15m) and mesophotic (40m) depths, during 2016-2018. Half of the tiles were retrieved and replaced biannually over three 6-month surveys (short-term); the remainder retrieved at the end of the 18-month (long-term) survey. 451 recruits were located using fluorescent censusing and identified by DNA barcoding. Barcoding the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene resulted in 17 molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs). To obtain taxonomic resolution to the generic level, Pocillopora were phylotyped using the mitochondrial open reading frame (ORF), resolving eight MOTUs. Acropora, Isopora, and Montipora recruits were identified by the nuclear PaxC intron, yielding ten MOTUs. Overall, 35 MOTUs were generated and were comprised primarily of Pocillopora and, in fewer numbers, Acropora, Isopora, Pavona, Montipora, Stylophora, among others. 40% of MOTUs recruited solely within mesophotic reefs while 20% were shared by both depth zones. MOTUs recruiting across a broad depth distribution appear consistent with the hypothesis of mesophotic reefs acting as a refuge for shallow-water coral reefs. In contrast, Acropora and Isopora MOTUs were structured across depth zones representing an exception to this hypothesis. This research provides an imperative assessment of coral recruitment in understudied mesophotic reefs and imparts insight into the refuge hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek Soto
- Biodiversity ProgramTaiwan International Graduate ProgramAcademia Sinica and National Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
- Biodiversity Research CenterAcademia SinicaTaipeiTaiwan
- Department of Life ScienceNational Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Stéphane De Palmas
- Biodiversity ProgramTaiwan International Graduate ProgramAcademia Sinica and National Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
- Biodiversity Research CenterAcademia SinicaTaipeiTaiwan
- Department of Life ScienceNational Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Ming‐Jay Ho
- Biodiversity Research CenterAcademia SinicaTaipeiTaiwan
- Green Island Marine Research StationAcademia SinicaLudao, Taitung CountyTaiwan
| | - Vianney Denis
- Institute of OceanographyNational Taiwan UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Chaolun Allen Chen
- Biodiversity Research CenterAcademia SinicaTaipeiTaiwan
- Department of Life ScienceNational Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
- Department of Life ScienceTung Hai UniversityTaichungTaiwan
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19
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Ng CSL, Chan YKS, Nguyen NTH, Kikuzawa YP, Sam SQ, Toh TC, Mock AYJ, Chou LM, Huang D. Coral community composition and carbonate production in an urbanized seascape. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 168:105322. [PMID: 33857701 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2021.105322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Coastal urbanization causes environmental modifications that directly and indirectly influence the distribution and functioning of coral reefs. However, the capacity of urban infrastructure to support corals and vertically accrete is less understood. Here, we investigated if coral communities on reefs and seawalls in Singapore are distinct, and examined the environmental variables influencing coral carbonate production. Surveys at 22 sites yielded 134 coral species, with richness significantly higher on reefs. Coral cover and Shannon index did not differ between habitat types. Community composition was distinct between habitat types, with seawalls supporting a higher proportion of massive and thick-plating species. 'Distance from mainland' was the single most important variable influencing normalized carbonate production rates (a function of species-specific linear extension rate and skeletal bulk density and site coral cover), which were higher further from the mainland where human activity and development pressures were greater. Our results indicate that environmental filtering strongly shapes coral communities and may influence ecosystem functioning in Singapore's urbanized reef system. The findings will guide the management of reefs on increasingly urbanized coastlines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chin Soon Lionel Ng
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore; Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, 14 Kent Ridge Road, 119223, Singapore.
| | - Yong Kit Samuel Chan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore
| | - Nhung Thi Hong Nguyen
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore
| | - Yuichi Preslie Kikuzawa
- Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, 14 Kent Ridge Road, 119223, Singapore
| | - Shu Qin Sam
- Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, 14 Kent Ridge Road, 119223, Singapore
| | - Tai Chong Toh
- Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, 14 Kent Ridge Road, 119223, Singapore; College of Alice and Peter Tan, National University of Singapore, 8 College Avenue East, 138615, Singapore
| | - Aidan Yong Jie Mock
- Yale-NUS College, Environmental Studies, National University of Singapore, 16 College Avenue West, 138527, Singapore
| | - Loke Ming Chou
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore; Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, 14 Kent Ridge Road, 119223, Singapore
| | - Danwei Huang
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore; Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, 14 Kent Ridge Road, 119223, Singapore; Centre for Nature-based Climate Solutions, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, 117558, Singapore
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20
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Sakai Y, Kato K, Koyama H, Kuba A, Takahashi H, Fujimori T, Hatta M, Negri AP, Baird AH, Ueno N. A step-down photophobic response in coral larvae: implications for the light-dependent distribution of the common reef coral, Acropora tenuis. Sci Rep 2020; 10:17680. [PMID: 33077782 PMCID: PMC7572417 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-74649-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioral responses to environmental factors at the planktonic larval stage can have a crucial influence on habitat selection and therefore adult distributions in many benthic organisms. Reef-building corals show strong patterns of zonation across depth or underwater topography, with different suites of species aggregating in different light environments. One potential mechanism driving this pattern is the response of free-swimming larvae to light. However, there is little experimental support for this hypothesis; in particular, there are few direct and quantitative observations of larval behavior in response to light. Here, we analyzed the swimming behavior of larvae of the common reef coral Acropora tenuis under various light conditions. Larvae exhibited a step-down photophobic response, i.e. a marked decrease in swimming speed, in response to a rapid attenuation (step-down) of light intensity. Observations of larvae under different wavelengths indicated that only the loss of blue light (wavelengths between 400 and 500 nm) produced a significant response. Mathematical simulations of this step-down photophobic response indicate that larvae will aggregate in the lighter areas of two-dimensional large rectangular fields. These results suggest that the step-down photophobic response of coral larvae may play an important role in determining where larval settle on the reef.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Sakai
- Division of Morphogenesis, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan. .,Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Kagayaki Kato
- Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan.,Department of Imaging Science, Center for Novel Science Initiatives, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan.,Division of Evolutionary Biology Biodiversity, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Koyama
- Division of Embryology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan.,Department of Basic Biology, School of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, Aichi, Japan
| | - Alyson Kuba
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Hiroki Takahashi
- Division of Morphogenesis, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan.,Department of Basic Biology, School of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, Aichi, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Fujimori
- Division of Embryology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan.,Department of Basic Biology, School of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, Aichi, Japan
| | - Masayuki Hatta
- Department of Biology, Ochanomizu University, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Andrew P Negri
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Andrew H Baird
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Naoto Ueno
- Division of Morphogenesis, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan. .,Department of Basic Biology, School of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, Aichi, Japan.
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21
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A geometric basis for surface habitat complexity and biodiversity. Nat Ecol Evol 2020; 4:1495-1501. [PMID: 32839543 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-020-1281-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Structurally complex habitats tend to contain more species and higher total abundances than simple habitats. This ecological paradigm is grounded in first principles: species richness scales with area, and surface area and niche density increase with three-dimensional complexity. Here we present a geometric basis for surface habitats that unifies ecosystems and spatial scales. The theory is framed by fundamental geometric constraints between three structure descriptors-surface height, rugosity and fractal dimension-and explains 98% of surface variation in a structurally complex test system: coral reefs. Then, we show how coral biodiversity metrics (species richness, total abundance and probability of interspecific encounter) vary over the theoretical structure descriptor plane, demonstrating the value of the theory for predicting the consequences of natural and human modifications of surface structure.
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22
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Zawada KJA, Madin JS, Baird AH, Bridge TCL, Dornelas M. Morphological traits can track coral reef responses to the Anthropocene. Funct Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kyle J. A. Zawada
- Centre for Biological Diversity, Scottish Oceans Institute University of St. Andrews St. Andrews UK
- Department of Biological Sciences Macquarie University Sydney New South Wales Australia
| | - Joshua S. Madin
- Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology University of Hawai‘i at Manoa Kaneohe Hawai‘i
| | - Andrew H. Baird
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies James Cook University Townsville Queensland Australia
| | - Tom C. L. Bridge
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies James Cook University Townsville Queensland Australia
- Biodiversity and Geosciences Program, Museum of Tropical Queensland Queensland Museum Network Townsville Queensland Australia
| | - Maria Dornelas
- Centre for Biological Diversity, Scottish Oceans Institute University of St. Andrews St. Andrews UK
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23
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Meirelles PM, Soares AC, Oliveira L, Leomil L, Appolinario LR, Francini-Filho RB, de Moura RL, de Barros Almeida RT, Salomon PS, Amado-Filho GM, Kruger R, Siegle E, Tschoeke DA, Kudo I, Mino S, Sawabe T, Thompson CC, Thompson FL. Metagenomics of Coral Reefs Under Phase Shift and High Hydrodynamics. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2203. [PMID: 30337906 PMCID: PMC6180206 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Local and global stressors have affected coral reef ecosystems worldwide. Switches from coral to algal dominance states and microbialization are the major processes underlying the global decline of coral reefs. However, most of the knowledge concerning microbialization has not considered physical disturbances (e.g., typhoons, waves, and currents). Southern Japan reef systems have developed under extreme physical disturbances. Here, we present analyses of a three-year investigation on the coral reefs of Ishigaki Island that comprised benthic and fish surveys, water quality analyses, metagenomics and microbial abundance data. At the four studied sites, inorganic nutrient concentrations were high and exceeded eutrophication thresholds. The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration (up to 233.3 μM) and microbial abundance (up to 2.5 × 105 cell/mL) values were relatively high. The highest vibrio counts coincided with the highest turf cover (∼55-85%) and the lowest coral cover (∼4.4-10.2%) and fish biomass (0.06 individuals/m2). Microbiome compositions were similar among all sites and were dominated by heterotrophs. Our data suggest that a synergic effect among several regional stressors are driving coral decline. In a high hydrodynamics reef environment, high algal/turf cover, stimulated by eutrophication and low fish abundance due to overfishing, promote microbialization. Together with crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) outbreaks and possible of climate changes impacts, theses coral reefs are likely to collapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Milet Meirelles
- Institute of Biology and SAGE-COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Soares
- Institute of Biology and SAGE-COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Louisi Oliveira
- Institute of Biology and SAGE-COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Luciana Leomil
- Institute of Biology and SAGE-COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Luciana Reis Appolinario
- Institute of Biology and SAGE-COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Rodrigo Leão de Moura
- Institute of Biology and SAGE-COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Paulo S. Salomon
- Institute of Biology and SAGE-COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Ricardo Kruger
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Siegle
- Oceanographic Institute, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Diogo A. Tschoeke
- Institute of Biology and SAGE-COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Isao Kudo
- Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Sayaka Mino
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate, Japan
| | - Tomoo Sawabe
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate, Japan
| | - Cristiane C. Thompson
- Institute of Biology and SAGE-COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Fabiano L. Thompson
- Institute of Biology and SAGE-COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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24
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Johns KA, Emslie MJ, Hoey AS, Osborne K, Jonker MJ, Cheal AJ. Macroalgal feedbacks and substrate properties maintain a coral reef regime shift. Ecosphere 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kerryn A. Johns
- Australian Institute of Marine Science; PMB 3, Townsville MC Townsville 4810 Queensland Australia
| | - Michael J. Emslie
- Australian Institute of Marine Science; PMB 3, Townsville MC Townsville 4810 Queensland Australia
| | - Andrew S. Hoey
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies; James Cook University; Townsville 4811 Queensland Australia
| | - Kate Osborne
- Australian Institute of Marine Science; PMB 3, Townsville MC Townsville 4810 Queensland Australia
| | - Michelle J. Jonker
- Australian Institute of Marine Science; PMB 3, Townsville MC Townsville 4810 Queensland Australia
| | - Alistair J. Cheal
- Australian Institute of Marine Science; PMB 3, Townsville MC Townsville 4810 Queensland Australia
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25
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The Eastern Tropical Pacific coral population connectivity and the role of the Eastern Pacific Barrier. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9354. [PMID: 29921956 PMCID: PMC6008413 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27644-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-distance dispersal is believed to strongly influence coral reef population dynamics across the Tropical Pacific. However, the spatial scale and strength at which populations are potentially connected by dispersal remains uncertain. To determine the patterns in connectivity between the Eastern (ETP) and Central Tropical Pacific (CTP) ecoregions, we used a biophysical model incorporating ocean currents and larval biology to quantify the seascape-wide dispersal potential among all population. We quantified the likelihood and determined the oceanographic conditions that enable the dispersal of coral larvae across the Eastern Pacific Barrier (EP-Barrier) and identified the main connectivity pathways and their conservation value for dominant reef-building corals. Overall, we found that coral assemblages within the CTP and ETP are weakly connected through dispersal. Although the EP-Barrier isolates the ETP from the CTP ecoregion, we found evidence that the EP-Barrier may be breached, in both directions, by rare dispersal events. These rare events could explain the evolutionary genetic similarity among populations of pocilloporids in the ecoregions. Moreover, the ETP may function as a stronger source rather than a destination, providing potential recruits to CTP populations. We also show evidence for a connectivity loop in the ETP, which may positively influence long-term population persistence in the region. Coral conservation and management communities should consider eight-key stepping stone ecoregions when developing strategies to preserve the long-distance connectivity potential across the ETP and CTP.
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26
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Deslauriers D, Svendsen JC, Genz J, Wall AJ, Baktoft H, Enders EC, Anderson WG. Environmental calcium and variation in yolk sac size influence swimming performance in larval lake sturgeon ( Acipenser fulvescens). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:jeb.164533. [PMID: 29440358 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.164533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In many animal species, performance in the early life stages strongly affects recruitment to the adult population; however, factors that influence early life history stages are often the least understood. This is particularly relevant for lake sturgeon, Acipenser fulvescens, living in areas where environmental calcium concentrations are declining, partly due to anthropogenic activity. As calcium is important for muscle contraction and fatigue resistance, declining calcium levels could constrain swimming performance. Similarly, swimming performance could be influenced by variation in yolk sac volume, because the yolk sac is likely to affect drag forces during swimming. Testing swimming performance of larval A. fulvescens reared in four different calcium treatments spanning the range of 4-132 mg l-1 [Ca2+], this study found no treatment effects on the sprint swimming speed. A novel test of volitional swimming performance, however, revealed reduced swimming performance in the low calcium environment. Specifically, volitionally swimming larvae covered a shorter distance before swimming cessation in the low calcium environment compared with the other treatments. Moreover, sprint swimming speed in larvae with a large yolk sac was significantly slower than in larvae with a small yolk sac, regardless of body length variation. Thus, elevated maternal allocation (i.e. more yolk) was associated with reduced swimming performance. Data suggest that larvae in low calcium environments or with a large yolk sac exhibit reduced swimming performance and could be more susceptible to predation or premature downstream drift. Our study reveals how environmental factors and phenotypic variation influence locomotor performance in a larval fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Deslauriers
- University of Manitoba, Department of Biological Sciences, 369 Duff Roblin, 190 Dysart Road, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada.,Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Central & Arctic Region, Freshwater Institute, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N6, Canada
| | - Jon C Svendsen
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Central & Arctic Region, Freshwater Institute, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N6, Canada .,Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal.,Technical University of Denmark, National Institute of Aquatic Resources (DTU-Aqua), Section for Ecosystem based Marine Management, Kemitorvet, Building 201, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Janet Genz
- University of Manitoba, Department of Biological Sciences, 369 Duff Roblin, 190 Dysart Road, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada.,University of West Georgia, Biology Department, 1601 Maple Street, Carrollton, GA 30118, USA
| | - Alex J Wall
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Central & Arctic Region, Freshwater Institute, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N6, Canada
| | - Henrik Baktoft
- Technical University of Denmark, National Institute of Aquatic Resources, Section for Freshwater Fisheries and Ecology, Vejlsøvej 39, DK-8600 Silkeborg, Denmark
| | - Eva C Enders
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Central & Arctic Region, Freshwater Institute, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N6, Canada
| | - W Gary Anderson
- University of Manitoba, Department of Biological Sciences, 369 Duff Roblin, 190 Dysart Road, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
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27
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House JE, Brambilla V, Bidaut LM, Christie AP, Pizarro O, Madin JS, Dornelas M. Moving to 3D: relationships between coral planar area, surface area and volume. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4280. [PMID: 29435392 PMCID: PMC5806594 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Coral reefs are a valuable and vulnerable marine ecosystem. The structure of coral reefs influences their health and ability to fulfill ecosystem functions and services. However, monitoring reef corals largely relies on 1D or 2D estimates of coral cover and abundance that overlook change in ecologically significant aspects of the reefs because they do not incorporate vertical or volumetric information. This study explores the relationship between 2D and 3D metrics of coral size. We show that surface area and volume scale consistently with planar area, albeit with morphotype specific conversion parameters. We use a photogrammetric approach using open-source software to estimate the ability of photogrammetry to provide measurement estimates of corals in 3D. Technological developments have made photogrammetry a valid and practical technique for studying coral reefs. We anticipate that these techniques for moving coral research from 2D into 3D will facilitate answering ecological questions by incorporating the 3rd dimension into monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny E House
- Center for Biological Diversity, Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Viviana Brambilla
- Center for Biological Diversity, Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Luc M Bidaut
- Clinical Research Imaging Facility, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom.,College of Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Alec P Christie
- Center for Biological Diversity, Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Oscar Pizarro
- Australian Centre for Field Robotics, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Joshua S Madin
- Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Kaneohe, HI, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Maria Dornelas
- Center for Biological Diversity, Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
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28
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Duran A, Collado-Vides L, Palma L, Burkepile DE. Interactive effects of herbivory and substrate orientation on algal community dynamics on a coral reef. MARINE BIOLOGY 2018; 165:156. [PMID: 30294007 PMCID: PMC6153878 DOI: 10.1007/s00227-018-3411-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 09/01/2018] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Herbivory is a significant driver of algal community dynamics on coral reefs. However, abiotic factors such as the complexity and orientation of the benthos often mediate the impact of herbivores on benthic communities. We experimentally evaluated the independent and interactive effects of substrate orientation and herbivorous fishes on algal community dynamics on a coral reef in the Florida Keys, USA. We created horizontal and vertical substrates, mimicking the trend in the reduction of vertical surfaces of coral reefs, to assess how algal communities developed either with herbivory (open areas) or without herbivory (herbivore exclosures). We found that substrate orientation was the dominant influence on macroalgal community composition. Herbivores had little impact on community development of vertical substrates as crustose algae dominated these substrates regardless of being in exclosures or open areas. In contrast, herbivores strongly impacted communities on horizontal substrates, with upright macroalgae (e.g., Dictyota spp., articulated coralline algae) dominating herbivore exclosures, while filamentous turf algae and sediment dominated open areas. Outside of exclosures, differences between vertical and horizontal substrates exposed to herbivores persisted despite similar intensity of herbivory. Our results suggest that the orientation of the reef benthos has an important impact on benthic communities. On vertical surfaces, abiotic factors may be more important for structuring algal communities while herbivory may be more important for controlling algal dynamics in flatter areas. Thus, the decline in structural complexity of Caribbean coral reefs and the flattening of reef substrates may fundamentally alter the impact that herbivores have on benthic community dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Duran
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, 11200 S.W. 8th St., Miami, FL 33199 USA
| | - L. Collado-Vides
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, 11200 S.W. 8th St., Miami, FL 33199 USA
- Center for Coastal Oceans Research in the Institute for Water and Environment, 11200 S. W. 8th St., Miami, FL 33199 USA
| | - L. Palma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, 11200 S.W. 8th St., Miami, FL 33199 USA
| | - D. E. Burkepile
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 USA
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 USA
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