Investigation of pyrophosphate versus ATP substrate selection in the Entamoeba histolytica acetate kinase

The Role of Acetate Kinase in the Human Parasite Entamoeba histolytica

The human parasite Entamoeba histolytica, which causes approximately 100 million cases of amoebic dysentery each year, relies on glycolysis as the major source of ATP production from glucose as it lacks a citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Ethanol and acetate, the two major glycolytic end products for E. histolytica, are produced at a ratio of 2:1 under anaerobic conditions, creating an imbalance between NADH production and utilization. In this study we investigated the role of acetate kinase (ACK) in acetate production during glycolysis in E. histolytica metabolism. Analysis of intracellular and extracellular metabolites demonstrated that acetate levels were unaffected in an ACK RNAi cell line, but acetyl-CoA levels and the NAD⁺/NADH ratio were significantly elevated. Moreover, we demonstrated that glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyzes the ACK-dependent conversion of acetaldehyde to acetyl phosphate in E. histolytica. We propose that ACK is not a major contributor to acetate production, but instead provides a mechanism for maintaining the NAD⁺/NADH balance during ethanol production in the extended glycolytic pathway.

Pyrophosphate as an alternative energy currency in plants

In the conditions of [Mg2+] elevation that occur, in particular, under low oxygen stress and are the consequence of the decrease in [ATP] and increase in [ADP] and [AMP], pyrophosphate (PPi) can function as an alternative energy currency in plant cells. In addition to its production by various metabolic pathways, PPi can be synthesized in the combined reactions of pyruvate, phosphate dikinase (PPDK) and pyruvate kinase (PK) by so-called PK/PPDK substrate cycle, and in the reverse reaction of membrane-bound H+-pyrophosphatase, which uses the energy of electrochemical gradients generated on tonoplast and plasma membrane. The PPi can then be consumed in its active forms of MgPPi and Mg2PPi by PPi-utilizing enzymes, which require an elevated [Mg2+]. This ensures a continuous operation of glycolysis in the conditions of suppressed ATP synthesis, keeping metabolism energy efficient and less dependent on ATP.

Structural comparisons of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinases reveal the evolutionary trajectories of these phosphodiester energy conversion enzymes

Inorganic pyrophosphate (PP_i) consists of two phosphate molecules and can act as an energy and phosphate donor in cellular reactions, similar to ATP. Several kinases use PP_i as a substrate, and these kinases have recently been suggested to have evolved from ATP-dependent functional homologs, which have significant amino acid sequence similarity to PP_i-utilizing enzymes. In contrast, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) can be divided into three types according to the phosphate donor (ATP, GTP, or PPi), and the amino acid sequence similarity of these PEPCKs is too low to confirm that they share a common ancestor. Here we solved the crystal structure of a PP_i-PEPCK homolog from the bacterium Actinomyces israelii at 2.6 Å resolution and compared it with previously reported structures from ATP- and GTP-specific PEPCKs to assess the degrees of similarities and divergences among these PEPCKs. These comparisons revealed that they share a tertiary structure with significant value and that amino acid residues directly contributing to substrate recognition, except for those that recognize purine moieties, are conserved. Furthermore, the order of secondary structural elements between PP_i-, ATP-, and GTP-specific PEPCKs was strictly conserved. The structure-based comparisons of the three PEPCK types provide key insights into the structural basis of PP_i specificity and suggest that all of these PEPCKs are derived from a common ancestor.

Identification of a pyrophosphate-dependent kinase and its donor selectivity determinants

Almost all kinases utilize ATP as their phosphate donor, while a few kinases utilize pyrophosphate (PPi) instead. PPi-dependent kinases are often homologous to their ATP-dependent counterparts, but determinants of their different donor specificities remain unclear. We identify a PPi-dependent member of the ribokinase family, which differs from known PPi-dependent kinases, and elucidate its PPi-binding mode based on the crystal structures. Structural comparison and sequence alignment reveal five important residues: three basic residues specifically recognizing PPi and two large hydrophobic residues occluding a part of the ATP-binding pocket. Two of the three basic residues adapt a conserved motif of the ribokinase family for the PPi binding. Using these five key residues as a signature pattern, we discover additional PPi-specific members of the ribokinase family, and thus conclude that these residues are the determinants of PPi-specific binding. Introduction of these residues may enable transformation of ATP-dependent ribokinase family members into PPi-dependent enzymes.

While most kinases are ATP-dependent some utilize pyrophosphate (PPi) instead. Here the authors structurally characterize a PPi-dependent kinase, identify its key recognition residues and find further PPi-dependent ribokinase family members with this signature pattern.