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Adasooriya D, Jeong JK, Kyeong M, Kan S, Kim J, Cho ES, Cho SW. Notum regulates the cusp and root patterns in mouse molar. Sci Rep 2024; 14:13633. [PMID: 38871845 PMCID: PMC11176191 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-64340-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Notum is a direct target of Wnt/β-catenin signaling and plays a crucial role as a Wnt inhibitor within a negative feedback loop. In the tooth, Notum is known to be expressed in odontoblasts, and severe dentin defects and irregular tooth roots have been reported in Notum-deficient mice. However, the precise expression pattern of Notum in early tooth development, and the role of Notum in crown and root patterns remain elusive. In the present study, we identified a novel Notum expression in primary enamel knot (EK), secondary EKs, and dental papilla during tooth development. Notum-deficient mice exhibited enlarged secondary EKs, resulting in broader cusp tips, altered cusp patterns, and reduced concavity in crown outline. These alterations in crown outline led to a reduction in cervical tongue length, thereby inducing root fusion in Notum-deficient mice. Overall, these results suggest that the secondary EK size, regulated by the Wnt/Notum negative feedback loop, has a significant impact on the patterns of crown and root during tooth morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinuka Adasooriya
- Division of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, BK21 FOUR Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ju-Kyung Jeong
- Cluster for Craniofacial Development and Regeneration Research, Institute of Oral Biosciences, Jeonbuk National University School of Dentistry, Jeonju, Korea
| | - Minjae Kyeong
- Division of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, BK21 FOUR Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
| | - Shiqi Kan
- Division of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, BK21 FOUR Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jiwoo Kim
- Division of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, BK21 FOUR Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
| | - Eui-Sic Cho
- Cluster for Craniofacial Development and Regeneration Research, Institute of Oral Biosciences, Jeonbuk National University School of Dentistry, Jeonju, Korea.
| | - Sung-Won Cho
- Division of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, BK21 FOUR Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea.
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Macdonald AA, Ziehmer B, Kitchener AC, Gelang M, Åblad B, Lintonsson R, von Pückler K, Schaub S, Kiefer I, Schwarz T. A Computed Tomographic Study of the Molar Teeth of Babyrousa spp. J Vet Dent 2024:8987564241248818. [PMID: 38706174 DOI: 10.1177/08987564241248818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
A photographic and computed tomography (CT) scanning study was carried out on 295 molar teeth of 18 adult male Babyrousa babyrussa skulls and 8 skulls of Babyrousa celebensis including seven adult males and one adult female. The occlusal morphology of the permanent maxillary and mandibular molar teeth of B. babyrussa was very similar to that of B. celebensis. Most B. babyrussa maxillary molar teeth had six roots, with small numbers of teeth having four, five or seven roots. A similar pattern was suggested in B. celebensis. Mandibular molar teeth had between four and eight roots. Tooth roots of maxillary and mandibular first and second molar teeth were largely tapering, rod-like structures. The roots of the right and left maxillary third molar teeth had a more complex arrangement; some were inserted almost vertically into the maxilla; others were orientated in a more distal direction. The mesial and distal roots were splayed in appearance. The right and left mandibular third molar tooth roots retained elements of the open 'C' shape and were generally orientated distally. The pulp chambers were arched to fit under the main cusps in all molar teeth. Pulp canals were variable in number.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alastair A Macdonald
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and the Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Bianca Ziehmer
- Department of Viticulture and Agriculture, Ministry of Economic Affairs, Transport, Agriculture and Viticulture Rhineland Palatinate (MWVLW), Mainz, Germany
| | - Andrew C Kitchener
- Department of Natural Sciences, National Museums Scotland, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Magnus Gelang
- Göteborgs Naturhistoriska Museum, Göteborg, Museivägen, Germany
| | - Björn Åblad
- Bildenheten, Gjutjärnsgatan, Blå Stjärnans Djursjukhus AB, Goteborg, Sweden
| | - Ruth Lintonsson
- Bildenheten, Gjutjärnsgatan, Blå Stjärnans Djursjukhus AB, Goteborg, Sweden
| | - Kerstin von Pückler
- Radiologie, Justus-Liebig Universität, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen Klinik für Geburtshilfe Gynäkologie und Andrologie der Groß- und Kleintiere mit Tierärztlicher Ambulanz, Giessen, Hessen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Schaub
- Radiologie, Justus-Liebig Universität, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen Klinik für Geburtshilfe Gynäkologie und Andrologie der Groß- und Kleintiere mit Tierärztlicher Ambulanz, Giessen, Hessen, Germany
| | - Ingmar Kiefer
- Klinik für Kleintiere, Universität Leipzig Veterinärmedizinische Fakultät, Leipzig, Sachsen, Germany
| | - Tobias Schwarz
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and the Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
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Zilberman U, Abramov J, Smith P. Supernumerary roots in maxillary deciduous canines: A rare anomaly with a long history. Arch Oral Biol 2021; 132:105292. [PMID: 34743803 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2021.105292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe two maxillary deciduous bi-rooted canines, one archeological and one modern, and examine the possible etiology of this condition. DESIGN Two cases of bi-rooted canines were described and compared to published examples. Both specimens were radiographed and measured and compared to one-rooted samples. The archeological specimen was scanned using CBCT to facilitate detailed examination of the deciduous teeth. The extracted modern tooth was embedded in epoxy resin and two coronal sections were cut, one through the crown and one through the roots and examined with a light microscope. RESULTS The bi-rooted canines were larger than the control samples. They showed none of the features commonly associated with gemination. The radiographs and scans showed that the canine roots in the archeological case diverged mesio-distally like the buccal roots in the adjacent first deciduous molar. In the clinical case, the root trunk was elongated mesio-distally and the furcation was located very close to the apex with a C-shaped root canal. CONCLUSIONS Both variants of the condition described above are rare in deciduous canines. They do not seem to be associated with fusion or gemination. However, as the teeth are relatively flattened bucco-lingually and we tentatively propose that this form results from spatial constraints during the early stages of crown development that have contributed to the development of additional roots. The megadont dimension of the recent bi-rooted deciduous canine may affect root development and the necessity of two mesio-distally located roots for anchorage in the maxilla.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uri Zilberman
- Barzilai Medical University Center, Ashkelon, Affiliated to Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
| | - Julia Abramov
- National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Patricia Smith
- Laboratory of Bioanthropology and Ancient DNA, Faculties of Medicine and Dental Medicine, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.
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The earliest-known mammaliaform fossil from Greenland sheds light on origin of mammals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:26861-26867. [PMID: 33046636 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2012437117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Synapsids are unique in having developed multirooted teeth and complex occlusions. These innovations evolved in at least two lineages of mammaliamorphs (Tritylodontidae and Mammaliaformes). Triassic fossils demonstrate that close to the origins of mammals, mammaliaform precursors were "experimenting" with tooth structure and function, resulting in novel patterns of occlusion. One of the most surprising examples of such adaptations is present in the haramiyidan clade, which differed from contemporary mammaliaforms in having two rows of cusps on molariform crowns adapted to omnivorous/herbivorous feeding. However, the origin of the multicusped tooth pattern present in haramiyidans has remained enigmatic. Here we describe the earliest-known mandibular fossil of a mammaliaform with double molariform roots and a crown with two rows of cusps from the Late Triassic of Greenland. The crown morphology is intermediate between that of morganucodontans and haramiyidans and suggests the derivation of the multicusped molariforms of haramiyidans from the triconodont molar pattern seen in morganucodontids. Although it is remarkably well documented in the fossil record, the significance of tooth root division in mammaliaforms remains enigmatic. The results of our biomechanical analyses (finite element analysis [FEA]) indicate that teeth with two roots can better withstand stronger mechanical stresses like those resulting from tooth occlusion, than teeth with a single root.
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Neupane S, Aryal YP, Kim TY, Yeon CY, An CH, Kim JY, Yamamoto H, Lee Y, Sohn WJ, Kim JY. Signaling Modulations of miR-206-3p in Tooth Morphogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E5251. [PMID: 32722078 PMCID: PMC7432545 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21155251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of naturally occurring small non-coding RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression in organisms. Most mammalian miRNAs influence biological processes, including developmental changes, tissue morphogenesis and the maintenance of tissue identity, cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and metabolism. The miR-206-3p has been correlated with cancer; however, developmental roles of this miRNA are unclear. In this study, we examined the expression pattern and evaluated the developmental regulation of miR-206-3p during tooth morphogenesis using ex-vivo culture method. The expression pattern of miR-206-3p was examined in the epithelium and mesenchyme of developing tooth germ with stage-specific manners. Perturbation of the expression of miR-206-3p clearly altered expression patterns of dental-development-related signaling molecules, including Axin2, Bmp2, Fgf4, Lef1 and Shh. The gene expression complemented with change in cellular events including, apoptosis and proliferation which caused altered crown and pulp morphogenesis in renal-capsule-calcified teeth. Especially, mislocalization of β-Catenin and SMAD1/5/8 were observed alongside dramatic alterations in the expression patterns of Fgf4 and Shh. Overall, our data suggest that the miR-206-3p regulate the cellular physiology during tooth morphogenesis through modulation of the Wnt, Bmp, Fgf, and Shh signaling pathways to form proper tooth pulp and crown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjiv Neupane
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41940, Korea; (Y.P.A.); (T.-Y.K.); (C.-Y.Y.); (Y.L.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5215, USA
| | - Yam Prasad Aryal
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41940, Korea; (Y.P.A.); (T.-Y.K.); (C.-Y.Y.); (Y.L.)
| | - Tae-Young Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41940, Korea; (Y.P.A.); (T.-Y.K.); (C.-Y.Y.); (Y.L.)
| | - Chang-Yeol Yeon
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41940, Korea; (Y.P.A.); (T.-Y.K.); (C.-Y.Y.); (Y.L.)
| | - Chang-Hyeon An
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41940, Korea;
| | - Ji-Youn Kim
- Department of Dental Hygiene, College of Health Science, Gachon University, Incheon 21936, Korea;
| | - Hitoshi Yamamoto
- Department of Histology and Developmental Biology, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan;
| | - Youngkyun Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41940, Korea; (Y.P.A.); (T.-Y.K.); (C.-Y.Y.); (Y.L.)
| | - Wern-Joo Sohn
- Pre-Major of Cosmetics and Pharmaceutics, Daegu Haany University, Gyeongsan 38610, Korea;
| | - Jae-Young Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41940, Korea; (Y.P.A.); (T.-Y.K.); (C.-Y.Y.); (Y.L.)
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Third upper molar enlargement in sigmodontine rodents (Cricetidae): morphological disparity and evolutionary convergence. MAMMALIA 2020. [DOI: 10.1515/mammalia-2019-0031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
AbstractWe studied the enlargement of the upper third molar (M3), with respect to the upper second molar in sigmodontine rodents, the largest subfamily of living cricetids. M3 is enlarged in extant and extinct members of at least six tribes (Andinomyini, Euneomyini, Oryzomyini, Phyllotini, Reithrodontini and Sigmodontini), all of them also sharing hypsodonty, planate crowns and overall dental simplification in the context of Sigmodontinae. Enlargement is expressed in four ways, including simplification or modest complication of occlusal design on a single plane. M3 enlargement in sigmodontines is primarily associated with increasing herbivory rather than strictly with phylogeny, and thus presents a classic example of evolutionary convergence.
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Kim J, Ahn Y, Adasooriya D, Woo E, Kim H, Hu K, Krumlauf R, Cho S. Shh Plays an Inhibitory Role in Cusp Patterning by Regulation of Sostdc1. J Dent Res 2018; 98:98-106. [DOI: 10.1177/0022034518803095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Crown shapes in mammalian teeth vary considerably from species to species, and morphological characters in crown shape have been used to identify species. Cusp pattern is one of the characters in crown shape. In the processes governing the formation of cusp pattern, the Shh pathway has been implicated as an important player. Suppression of Shh signaling activity in vitro in explant assays appears to induce supernumerary cusp formation in wild-type tooth germs. However, the in vivo role of Shh signaling in cusp pattern formation and the molecular mechanisms by which Shh regulates cusp patterning are not clear. Here, through in vivo phenotypic analyses of mice in which Shh activity was suppressed and compared with wild-type mice, we characterized differences in the location, number, incidence, and shape of supernumerary cusps in molars at embryonic day 15.5. We found that the distances between cusps were reduced in molars of Shh activity–suppressed mice in vivo. These findings confirm and extend the previous idea that Shh acts as an inhibitor in the reaction-diffusion model for cusp pattern formation by negatively regulating the intercuspal distance. We uncovered a significant reduction of expression level of Sostdc1, which encodes a secreted modulator of Wnt signaling, after suppression of Shh activity. The supernumerary cusp formation in Sostdc1−/− mice and compound Sostdc1 and Lrp mutant mice indicates a strong association between Wnt and Shh signaling pathways in cusp patterning. In further support of this idea, there is a high degree of similarity in the supernumerary cusp patterns of mice lacking Sostdc1 or Shh at embryonic day 15.5. These results suggest that Shh plays an inhibitory role in cusp pattern formation by modulating Wnt signaling through the positive regulation of Sostdc1.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Kim
- Division of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
- Brain Korea 21 Plus Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
| | - Y. Ahn
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA
| | - D. Adasooriya
- Division of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
| | - E.J. Woo
- Department of History, College of Liberal Art, Sejong University, Seoul, Korea
| | - H.J. Kim
- Division of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
- Brain Korea 21 Plus Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
| | - K.S. Hu
- Division of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
- Brain Korea 21 Plus Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
| | - R. Krumlauf
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - S.W. Cho
- Division of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Seoul, Korea
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Guo Y, Guo W, Chen J, Chen G, Tian W, Bai D. Are Hertwig's epithelial root sheath cells necessary for periodontal formation by dental follicle cells? Arch Oral Biol 2018; 94:1-9. [PMID: 29929068 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2018.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2018] [Revised: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The role of Hertwig's epithelial root sheath (HERS) cells in periodontal formation has been controversial. This study aimed to further clarify whether HERS cells participate in formation of the periodontium, and the necessity of HERS cells in differentiation of dental follicle cells (DFCs) for periodontal regeneration. DESIGN HERS cells and DFCs were isolated and identified from post-natal 7-day Sprauge-Dawley rats. In vitro, direct co-culture of HERS cells and DFCs as well as the individual culture of HERS and DFCs were performed and followed by alizarin red staining and the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis. For in vivo evaluation, the inactivated dentin matrix (iTDM) was fabricated. HERS cells and DFCs were seeded in combination or alone on iTDM and then transplanted into the rat omentum. Scanning electron microscope and further histological analysis were carried out. RESULTS In vitro, mineral-like nodules were found in the culture of HERS cells alone or HERS + DFCs either by alizarin red staining or scanning electronic microscope. The mineralization and fiber-forming relevant mRNA expressions, such as bone sialoprotein, osteopontin, collagen I and collagen III in HERS + DFCs were significantly higher than that of the HERS or DFCs alone group. After transplantation in vivo, cementum and periodontal ligament-like tissues were formed in groups of HERS + DFCs and HERS alone, while no evident hard tissues and attached fibers were found in DFCs alone. CONCLUSIONS Hertwig's epithelial root sheath cells directly participate in the formation of the periodontium, and they are essential for the differentiation of dental follicle cells to form periodontal structures. The combination use of Hertwig's epithelial root sheath cells and dental follicle cells is a promising approach for periodontal regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongwen Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China; National Engineering Laboratory for Oral Regenerative Medicine, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China; Department of Orthodontics, West China School of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Weihua Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China; National Engineering Laboratory for Oral Regenerative Medicine, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China; Department of Pediatric Dentistry, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China; National Engineering Laboratory for Oral Regenerative Medicine, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China; Department of Orthodontics, West China School of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Guoqing Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China; National Engineering Laboratory for Oral Regenerative Medicine, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Weidong Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China; National Engineering Laboratory for Oral Regenerative Medicine, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China; Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, West China School of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China.
| | - Ding Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China; Department of Orthodontics, West China School of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China.
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Synchrotron radiation reveals the identity of the large felid from Monte Argentario (Early Pleistocene, Italy). Sci Rep 2018; 8:8338. [PMID: 29844540 PMCID: PMC5974229 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-26698-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe here a partial skull with associated mandible of a large felid from Monte Argentario, Italy (Early Pleistocene; ~1.5 million years). Propagation x-ray phase-contrast synchrotron microtomography of the specimen, still partially embedded in the rock matrix, allows ascribing it reliably to Acinonyx pardinensis, one of the most intriguing extinct carnivorans of the Old World Plio-Pleistocene. The analysis of images and 3D models obtained through synchrotron microtomography – here applied for the first time on a Plio-Pleistocene carnivoran – reveals a mosaic of cheetah-like and Panthera-like features, with the latter justifying previous attributions of the fossil to the extinct Eurasian jaguar Panthera gombaszoegensis. Similarly, we reassign to A. pardinensis some other Italian materials previously referred to P. gombaszoegensis (sites of Pietrafitta and Ellera di Corciano). The recognition of Panthera-like characters in A. pardinensis leads to reconsidering the ecological role of this species, whose hunting strategy was likely to be different from those of the living cheetah. Furthermore, we hypothesise that the high intraspecific variation in body size in A. pardinensis can be the result of sexual dimorphism, as observed today in all large-sized felids.
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