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You Y, Suraj HM, Matz L, Herrera Valderrama AL, Ruigrok P, Shi-Kunne X, Pieterse FPJ, Oostlander A, Beenen HG, Chavarro-Carrero EA, Qin S, Verstappen FWA, Kappers IF, Fleißner A, van Kan JAL. Botrytis cinerea combines four molecular strategies to tolerate membrane-permeating plant compounds and to increase virulence. Nat Commun 2024; 15:6448. [PMID: 39085234 PMCID: PMC11291775 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50748-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Saponins are plant secondary metabolites comprising glycosylated triterpenoids, steroids or steroidal alkaloids with a broad spectrum of toxicity to microbial pathogens and pest organisms that contribute to basal plant defense to biotic attack. Secretion of glycosyl hydrolases that enzymatically convert saponins into less toxic products was thus far the only mechanism reported to enable fungal pathogens to colonize their saponin-containing host plant(s). We studied the mechanisms that the fungus Botrytis cinerea utilizes to be tolerant to well-characterized, structurally related saponins from tomato and Digitalis purpurea. By gene expression studies, comparative genomics, enzyme assays and testing a large panel of fungal (knockout and complemented) mutants, we unraveled four distinct cellular mechanisms that participate in the mitigation of the toxic activity of these saponins and in virulence on saponin-producing host plants. The enzymatic deglycosylation that we identified is novel and unique to this fungus-saponin combination. The other three tolerance mechanisms operate in the fungal membrane and are mediated by protein families that are widely distributed in the fungal kingdom. We present a spatial and temporal model on how these mechanisms jointly confer tolerance to saponins and discuss the repercussions of these findings for other plant pathogenic fungi, as well as human pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaohua You
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biology, Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology, RWTH University, Aachen, Germany
| | - H M Suraj
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Institut für Genetik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Linda Matz
- Institut für Genetik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | | | - Paul Ruigrok
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Xiaoqian Shi-Kunne
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Frank P J Pieterse
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Anne Oostlander
- Institut für Genetik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Henriek G Beenen
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Si Qin
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California Davis, Davis, USA
| | | | - Iris F Kappers
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - André Fleißner
- Institut für Genetik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jan A L van Kan
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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Lacchini E, Venegas-Molina J, Goossens A. Structural and functional diversity in plant specialized metabolism signals and products: The case of oxylipins and triterpenes. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 74:102371. [PMID: 37148672 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2023.102371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic enzymes tend to evolve towards catalytic efficacy, precision and speed. This seems particularly true for ancient and conserved enzymes involved in fundamental cellular processes that are present virtually in every cell and organism and converting and producing relatively limited metabolite numbers. Nevertheless, sessile organisms like plants have an astonishing repertoire of specific (specialized) metabolites that, by numbers and chemical complexity, by far exceed primary metabolites. Most theories agree that early gene duplication, subsequent positive selection and diversifying evolution have allowed relaxed selection of duplicated metabolic genes, thus facilitating the accumulation of mutations that could broaden substrate/product specificity and lower activation barriers and kinetics. Here, we use oxylipins, oxygenated fatty acids of plastidial origin to which the phytohormone jasmonate belongs, and triterpenes, a large group of specialized metabolites whose biosynthesis is often elicited by jasmonates, to showcase the structural and functional diversity of chemical signals and products in plant metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elia Lacchini
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium; VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jhon Venegas-Molina
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium; VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Alain Goossens
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium; VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium.
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3
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Horse Chestnut Saponins-Escins, Isoescins, Transescins, and Desacylescins. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28052087. [PMID: 36903330 PMCID: PMC10004172 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28052087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Escins constitute an abundant family of saponins (saponosides) and are the most active components in Aesculum hippocastanum (horse chestnut-HC) seeds. They are of great pharmaceutical interest as a short-term treatment for venous insufficiency. Numerous escin congeners (slightly different compositions), as well as numerous regio-and stereo-isomers, are extractable from HC seeds, making quality control trials mandatory, especially since the structure-activity relationship (SAR) of the escin molecules remains poorly described. In the present study, mass spectrometry, microwave activation, and hemolytic activity assays were used to characterize escin extracts (including a complete quantitative description of the escin congeners and isomers), modify the natural saponins (hydrolysis and transesterification) and measure their cytotoxicity (natural vs. modified escins). The aglycone ester groups characterizing the escin isomers were targeted. A complete quantitative analysis, isomer per isomer, of the weight content in the saponin extracts as well as in the seed dry powder is reported for the first time. An impressive 13% in weight of escins in the dry seeds was measured, confirming that the HC escins must be absolutely considered for high-added value applications, provided that their SAR is established. One of the objectives of this study was to contribute to this development by demonstrating that the aglycone ester functions are mandatory for the toxicity of the escin derivative, and that the cytotoxicity also depends on the relative position of the ester functions on the aglycone.
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Ponomarenko LP, Kapustina II, Dautov SS, Dautova TN, Stonik VA. Free Sterol Composition of Deep-Sea Holothurian Orphnurgus cf. glaber. Nat Prod Commun 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/1934578x221142791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The free sterol fraction from the deep-sea holothurian Orphnurgus cf glaber Walsh, 1891, has been isolated and studied by GC–MS. Sterols containing Δ7, Δ0, Δ5, polyunsaturated and 5,8-epidioxy modified cores were found. A high percentage of compounds with polyunsaturated cores distinguish this composition from those of previously studied holothurians. Almost all identified compounds had saturated side chains, which is also a specific feature of this fraction. Peculiarities of biosynthesis and metabolism of the found sterols are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludmila P Ponomarenko
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Irina I Kapustina
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Salim S Dautov
- A.V. Zhirmunsky National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Tatiana N Dautova
- A.V. Zhirmunsky National Scientific Center of Marine Biology, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Valentin A Stonik
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
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5
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Salindeho N, Nurkolis F, Gunawan WB, Handoko MN, Samtiya M, Muliadi RD. Anticancer and anticholesterol attributes of sea cucumbers: An opinion in terms of functional food applications. Front Nutr 2022; 9:986986. [PMID: 35990338 PMCID: PMC9386276 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.986986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Netty Salindeho
- Fishery Products Technology Study Program, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, Sam Ratulangi University, Manado, Indonesia
| | - Fahrul Nurkolis
- Biological Sciences, State Islamic University of Sunan Kalijaga (UIN Sunan Kalijaga), Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - William Ben Gunawan
- Nutrition Science Department, Faculty of Medicine, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia
| | | | - Mrinal Samtiya
- Department of Nutrition Biology, Central University of Haryana, Mahendragarh, India
| | - Rendy Dijaya Muliadi
- Health and Nutrition Science Executive, Nutrifood Research Center, PT Nutrifood Indonesia, Kawasan Industri Pulogadung, Jakarta, Indonesia
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Biosynthesis of saponin defensive compounds in sea cucumbers. Nat Chem Biol 2022; 18:774-781. [PMID: 35761075 PMCID: PMC9236903 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-022-01054-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Soft-bodied slow-moving sea creatures such as sea stars and sea cucumbers lack an adaptive immune system and have instead evolved the ability to make specialized protective chemicals (glycosylated steroids and triterpenes) as part of their innate immune system. This raises the intriguing question of how these biosynthetic pathways have evolved. Sea star saponins are steroidal, while those of the sea cucumber are triterpenoid. Sterol biosynthesis in animals involves cyclization of 2,3-oxidosqualene to lanosterol by the oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC) enzyme lanosterol synthase (LSS). Here we show that sea cucumbers lack LSS and instead have two divergent OSCs that produce triterpene saponins and that are likely to have evolved from an ancestral LSS by gene duplication and neofunctionalization. We further show that sea cucumbers make alternate sterols that confer protection against self-poisoning by their own saponins. Collectively, these events have enabled sea cucumbers to evolve the ability to produce saponins and saponin-resistant sterols concomitantly. ![]()
Sea stars and sea cucumbers biosynthesize protective glycosylated steroids and triterpenes via divergent oxidosqualene cyclases (OSCs) that produce these distinct saponins in different species as well as in different tissues of a single species.
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Savarino P, Contino C, Colson E, Cabrera-Barjas G, De Winter J, Gerbaux P. Impact of the Hydrolysis and Methanolysis of Bidesmosidic Chenopodium quinoa Saponins on Their Hemolytic Activity. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27103211. [PMID: 35630692 PMCID: PMC9144749 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27103211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Saponins are specific metabolites abundantly present in plants and several marine animals. Their high cytotoxicity is associated with their membranolytic properties, i.e., their propensity to disrupt cell membranes upon incorporation. As such, saponins are highly attractive for numerous applications, provided the relation between their molecular structures and their biological activities is understood at the molecular level. In the present investigation, we focused on the bidesmosidic saponins extracted from the quinoa husk, whose saccharidic chains are appended on the aglycone via two different linkages, a glycosidic bond, and an ester function. The later position is sensitive to chemical modifications, such as hydrolysis and methanolysis. We prepared and characterized three sets of saponins using mass spectrometry: (i) bidesmosidic saponins directly extracted from the ground husk, (ii) monodesmosidic saponins with a carboxylic acid group, and (iii) monodesmosidic saponins with a methyl ester function. The impact of the structural modifications on the membranolytic activity of the saponins was assayed based on the determination of their hemolytic activity. The natural bidesmosidic saponins do not present any hemolytic activity even at the highest tested concentration (500 µg·mL−1). Hydrolyzed saponins already degrade erythrocytes at 20 µg·mL−1, whereas 100 µg·mL−1 of transesterified saponins is needed to induce detectable activity. The observation that monodesmosidic saponins, hydrolyzed or transesterified, are much more active against erythrocytes than the bidesmosidic ones confirms that bidesmosidic saponins are likely to be the dormant form of saponins in plants. Additionally, the observation that negatively charged saponins, i.e., the hydrolyzed ones, are more hemolytic than the neutral ones could be related to the red blood cell membrane structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Savarino
- Organic Synthesis and Mass Spectrometry Laboratory (S²MOs), University of Mons—UMONS, 23 Place du Parc, 7000 Mons, Belgium; (P.S.); (C.C.); (E.C.); (J.D.W.)
| | - Carolina Contino
- Organic Synthesis and Mass Spectrometry Laboratory (S²MOs), University of Mons—UMONS, 23 Place du Parc, 7000 Mons, Belgium; (P.S.); (C.C.); (E.C.); (J.D.W.)
| | - Emmanuel Colson
- Organic Synthesis and Mass Spectrometry Laboratory (S²MOs), University of Mons—UMONS, 23 Place du Parc, 7000 Mons, Belgium; (P.S.); (C.C.); (E.C.); (J.D.W.)
| | - Gustavo Cabrera-Barjas
- Unidad de Desarrollo Tecnológico (UDT), Universidad de Concepción, Av. Cordillera 2634, Parque Industrial Coronel, Concepción 4030000, Región del Bío Bío, Chile;
| | - Julien De Winter
- Organic Synthesis and Mass Spectrometry Laboratory (S²MOs), University of Mons—UMONS, 23 Place du Parc, 7000 Mons, Belgium; (P.S.); (C.C.); (E.C.); (J.D.W.)
| | - Pascal Gerbaux
- Organic Synthesis and Mass Spectrometry Laboratory (S²MOs), University of Mons—UMONS, 23 Place du Parc, 7000 Mons, Belgium; (P.S.); (C.C.); (E.C.); (J.D.W.)
- Correspondence:
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8
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Hamel JF, Eeckhaut I, Conand C, Sun J, Caulier G, Mercier A. Global knowledge on the commercial sea cucumber Holothuria scabra. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY 2022; 91:1-286. [PMID: 35777924 DOI: 10.1016/bs.amb.2022.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Holothuria scabra is one of the most intensively studied holothuroids, or sea cucumbers (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea), having been discussed in the literature since the early 19th century. The species is important for several reasons: (1) it is widely distributed and historically abundant in several shallow soft-bottom habitats throughout the Indo-Pacific, (2) it has a high commercial value on the Asian markets, where it is mainly sold as a dried product (beche-de-mer) and (3) it is the only tropical holothuroid species that can currently be mass-produced in hatcheries. Over 20 years have elapsed since the last comprehensive review on H. scabra published in 2001. Research on H. scabra has continued to accumulate, fuelled by intense commercial exploitation, and further declines in wild stocks over the entire distribution range. This review compiles data from over 950 publications pertaining to the biology, ecology, physiology, biochemical composition, aquaculture, fishery, processing and trade of H. scabra, presenting the most complete synthesis to date, including scientific papers and material published by local institutions and/or in foreign languages. The main goal of this project was to summarize and critically discuss the abundant literature on this species, making it more readily accessible to all stakeholders aiming to conduct fundamental and applied research on H. scabra, or wishing to develop aquaculture, stock enhancement and management programs across its geographic range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-François Hamel
- Society for the Exploration and Valuing of the Environment (SEVE), St. Philips, Newfoundland & Labrador, Canada.
| | - Igor Eeckhaut
- Biology of Marine Organisms and Biomimetics unit, University of Mons, Mons, Belgium
| | - Chantal Conand
- Département origines et évolution, Muséum National Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Jiamin Sun
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University, St. John's, Newfoundland & Labrador, Canada
| | - Guillaume Caulier
- Biology of Marine Organisms and Biomimetics unit, University of Mons, Mons, Belgium
| | - Annie Mercier
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University, St. John's, Newfoundland & Labrador, Canada.
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Rondelli V, Koutsioubas A, Pršić J, Deboever E, Crowet JM, Lins L, Deleu M. Sitosterol and glucosylceramide cooperative transversal and lateral uneven distribution in plant membranes. Sci Rep 2021; 11:21618. [PMID: 34732753 PMCID: PMC8566578 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-00696-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The properties of biomembranes depend on the presence, local structure and relative distribution assumed by the thousands of components it is made of. As for animal cells, plant membranes have been demonstrated to be organized in subdomains with different persistence lengths and times. In plant cells, sitosterol has been demonstrated to confer to phospholipid membranes a more ordered structure while among lipids, glycosphingolipids are claimed to form rafts where they tightly pack with sterols. Glucosylceramides are glycosphingolipids involved in plant signalling and are essential for viability of cells and whole plant. The glucosylceramide-sitosterol structural coupling within PLPC membranes is here investigated by Langmuir films, in silico simulations and neutron reflectometry, unveiling that a strong direct interaction between the two molecules exists and governs their lateral and transversal distribution within membrane leaflets. The understanding of the driving forces governing specific molecules clustering and segregation in subdomains, such as glucosylceramide and sitosterol, have an impact on the mechanical properties of biomembranes and could reflect in the other membrane molecules partitioning and activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Rondelli
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy.
| | - A Koutsioubas
- Jülich Centre for Neutron Science at Heinz Maier-Leibnitz Zentrum, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Garching, Germany.
| | - J Pršić
- Microbial Processes and Interactions Laboratory (MiPI), TERRA Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Université de Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - E Deboever
- Laboratoire de Biophysique Moléculaire aux Interfaces, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Condorcet, TERRA Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Université de Liège, Gembloux, Belgium.,Laboratory of Natural Molecules Chemistry, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, 2, Passage des Déportés, 5030, Gembloux, Belgium.,FytoFend S.A., rue Georges Legrand, 6, 5032, Isnes, Belgium
| | - J M Crowet
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Reims, France
| | - L Lins
- Laboratoire de Biophysique Moléculaire aux Interfaces, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Condorcet, TERRA Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Université de Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - M Deleu
- Laboratoire de Biophysique Moléculaire aux Interfaces, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Condorcet, TERRA Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Université de Liège, Gembloux, Belgium.
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10
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Zelepuga EA, Silchenko AS, Avilov SA, Kalinin VI. Structure-Activity Relationships of Holothuroid's Triterpene Glycosides and Some In Silico Insights Obtained by Molecular Dynamics Study on the Mechanisms of Their Membranolytic Action. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19110604. [PMID: 34822475 PMCID: PMC8625879 DOI: 10.3390/md19110604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The article describes the structure-activity relationships (SAR) for a broad series of sea cucumber glycosides on different tumor cell lines and erythrocytes, and an in silico modulation of the interaction of selected glycosides from the sea cucumber Eupentacta fraudatrix with model erythrocyte membranes using full-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The in silico approach revealed that the glycosides bound to the membrane surface mainly through hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds. The mode of such interactions depends on the aglycone structure, including the side chain structural peculiarities, and varies to a great extent. Two different mechanisms of glycoside/membrane interactions were discovered. The first one was realized through the pore formation (by cucumariosides A1 (40) and A8 (44)), preceded by bonding of the glycosides with membrane sphingomyelin, phospholipids, and cholesterol. Noncovalent intermolecular interactions inside multimolecular membrane complexes and their stoichiometry differed for 40 and 44. The second mechanism was realized by cucumarioside A2 (59) through the formation of phospholipid and cholesterol clusters in the outer and inner membrane leaflets, correspondingly. Noticeably, the glycoside/phospholipid interactions were more favorable compared to the glycoside/cholesterol interactions, but the glycoside possessed an agglomerating action towards the cholesterol molecules from the inner membrane leaflet. In silicosimulations of the interactions of cucumarioside A7 (45) with model membrane demonstrated only slight interactions with phospholipid polar heads and the absence of glycoside/cholesterol interactions. This fact correlated well with very low experimental hemolytic activity of this substance. The observed peculiarities of membranotropic action are in good agreement with the corresponding experimental data on hemolytic activity of the investigated compounds in vitro.
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11
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Kalinin VI. Echinoderms Metabolites: Structure, Functions, and Biomedical Perspectives. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:125. [PMID: 33652699 PMCID: PMC7996750 DOI: 10.3390/md19030125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Echinoderms are marine invertebrates belonging to the phylum Echinodermata (from the Ancient Greek words "echinos" (hedgehog) and "derma" (skin)). [...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir I Kalinin
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Pr. 100-letya Vladivostoka 159, 690022 Vladivostok, Russia
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12
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Estelle D, Laurence L, Marc O, Caroline DC, Magali D, Marie-Laure F. Linolenic fatty acid hydroperoxide acts as biocide on plant pathogenic bacteria: Biophysical investigation of the mode of action. Bioorg Chem 2020; 100:103877. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.103877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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13
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Enhancing the Membranolytic Activity of Chenopodium quinoa Saponins by Fast Microwave Hydrolysis. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25071731. [PMID: 32283763 PMCID: PMC7181122 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25071731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Saponins are plant secondary metabolites. There are associated with defensive roles due to their cytotoxicity and are active against microorganisms. Saponins are frequently targeted to develop efficient drugs. Plant biomass containing saponins deserves sustained interest to develop high-added value applications. A key issue when considering the use of saponins for human healthcare is their toxicity that must be modulated before envisaging any biomedical application. This can only go through understanding the saponin-membrane interactions. Quinoa is abundantly consumed worldwide, but the quinoa husk is discarded due to its astringent taste associated with its saponin content. Here, we focus on the saponins of the quinoa husk extract (QE). We qualitatively and quantitively characterized the QE saponins using mass spectrometry. They are bidesmosidic molecules, with two oligosaccharidic chains appended on the aglycone with two different linkages; a glycosidic bond and an ester function. The latter can be hydrolyzed to prepare monodesmosidic molecules. The microwave-assisted hydrolysis reaction was optimized to produce monodesmosidic saponins. The membranolytic activity of the saponins was assayed based on their hemolytic activity that was shown to be drastically increased upon hydrolysis. In silico investigations confirmed that the monodesmosidic saponins interact preferentially with a model phospholipid bilayer, explaining the measured increased hemolytic activity.
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Cárdenas PD, Almeida A, Bak S. Evolution of Structural Diversity of Triterpenoids. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:1523. [PMID: 31921225 PMCID: PMC6929605 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Plants have evolved to produce a blend of specialized metabolites that serve functional roles in plant adaptation. Among them, triterpenoids are one of the largest subclasses of such specialized metabolites, with more than 14,000 known structures. They play a role in plant defense and development and have potential applications within food and pharma. Triterpenoids are cyclized from oxidized squalene precursors by oxidosqualene cyclases, creating more than 100 different cyclical triterpene scaffolds. This limited number of scaffolds is the first step towards creating the vast structural diversity of triterpenoids followed by extensive diversification, in particular, by oxygenation and glycosylation. Gene duplication, divergence, and selection are major forces that drive triterpenoid structural diversification. The triterpenoid biosynthetic genes can be organized in non-homologous gene clusters, such as in Avena spp., Cucurbitaceae and Solanum spp., or scattered along plant chromosomes as in Barbarea vulgaris. Paralogous genes organized as tandem repeats reflect the extended gene duplication activities in the evolutionary history of the triterpenoid saponin pathways, as seen in B. vulgaris. We review and discuss examples of convergent and divergent evolution in triterpenoid biosynthesis, and the apparent mechanisms occurring in plants that drive their increasing structural diversity within and across species. Using B. vulgaris' saponins as examples, we discuss the impact a single structural modification can have on the structure of a triterpenoid and how this affect its biological properties. These examples provide insight into how plants continuously evolve their specialized metabolome, opening the way to study uncharacterized triterpenoid biosynthetic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Søren Bak
- Department of Plant and Environmental Science, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
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Claereboudt EJS, Caulier G, Decroo C, Colson E, Gerbaux P, Claereboudt MR, Schaller H, Flammang P, Deleu M, Eeckhaut I. Triterpenoids in Echinoderms: Fundamental Differences in Diversity and Biosynthetic Pathways. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:E352. [PMID: 31200494 PMCID: PMC6627624 DOI: 10.3390/md17060352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Echinoderms form a remarkable phylum of marine invertebrates that present specific chemical signatures unique in the animal kingdom. It is particularly the case for essential triterpenoids that evolved separately in each of the five echinoderm classes. Indeed, while most animals have Δ5-sterols, sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea) and sea stars (Asteroidea) also possess Δ7 and Δ9(11)-sterols, a characteristic not shared with brittle stars (Ophiuroidea), sea urchins (Echinoidea), and crinoids (Crinoidea). These particular Δ7 and Δ9(11) sterols emerged as a self-protection against membranolytic saponins that only sea cucumbers and sea stars produce as a defense mechanism. The diversity of saponins is large; several hundred molecules have been described in the two classes of these saponins (i.e., triterpenoid or steroid saponins). This review aims to highlight the diversity of triterpenoids in echinoderms by focusing on sterols and triterpenoid glycosides, but more importantly to provide an updated view of the biosynthesis of these molecules in echinoderms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J S Claereboudt
- Biology of Marine Organisms and Biomimetics Unit, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons-UMONS, 7000 Mons, Belgium.
- Laboratory of molecular biophysics of interfaces, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege, 5030 Gembloux, Belgium.
| | - Guillaume Caulier
- Biology of Marine Organisms and Biomimetics Unit, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons-UMONS, 7000 Mons, Belgium.
| | - Corentin Decroo
- Biology of Marine Organisms and Biomimetics Unit, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons-UMONS, 7000 Mons, Belgium.
- Organic Synthesis and Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Center for Mass Spectrometry, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons-UMONS, 7000 Mons, Belgium.
| | - Emmanuel Colson
- Biology of Marine Organisms and Biomimetics Unit, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons-UMONS, 7000 Mons, Belgium.
- Organic Synthesis and Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Center for Mass Spectrometry, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons-UMONS, 7000 Mons, Belgium.
| | - Pascal Gerbaux
- Organic Synthesis and Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Center for Mass Spectrometry, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons-UMONS, 7000 Mons, Belgium.
| | - Michel R Claereboudt
- Department of Marine Science and Fisheries, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, 123 Al-Khod, Oman.
| | - Hubert Schaller
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes du CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, 67084 Strasbourg Cedex, France.
| | - Patrick Flammang
- Biology of Marine Organisms and Biomimetics Unit, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons-UMONS, 7000 Mons, Belgium.
| | - Magali Deleu
- Laboratory of molecular biophysics of interfaces, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege, 5030 Gembloux, Belgium.
| | - Igor Eeckhaut
- Biology of Marine Organisms and Biomimetics Unit, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons-UMONS, 7000 Mons, Belgium.
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Verstraeten SL, Deleu M, Janikowska-Sagan M, Claereboudt EJS, Lins L, Tyteca D, Mingeot-Leclercq MP. The activity of the saponin ginsenoside Rh2 is enhanced by the interaction with membrane sphingomyelin but depressed by cholesterol. Sci Rep 2019; 9:7285. [PMID: 31086211 PMCID: PMC6513819 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-43674-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The membrane activity of some saponins, such as digitonin or alpha-hederin, is usually attributed to their interaction with membrane cholesterol (Chol). This contrasts with our recent publication showing that Chol, contrary to sphingomyelin (SM), can delay the cytotoxicity of the saponin ginsenoside Rh2, challenging the usual view that most saponins mediate their membrane effects through interaction with Chol. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the respective importance of Chol and SM as compared to phosphatidylcholine (PC) species in the membrane-related effects of Rh2. On simple lipid monolayers, Rh2 interacted more favorably with eggSM and DOPC than with Chol and eggPC. Using Large Unilamellar Vesicles (LUVs) of binary or ternary lipid compositions, we showed that Rh2 increased vesicle size, decreased membrane fluidity and induced membrane permeability with the following preference: eggSM:eggPC > eggSM:eggPC:Chol > eggPC:Chol. On Giant Unilamellar Vesicles (GUVs), we evidenced that Rh2 generated positive curvatures in eggSM-containing GUVs and small buds followed by intra-luminal vesicles in eggSM-free GUVs. Altogether, our data indicate that eggSM promotes and accelerates membrane-related effects induced by Rh2 whereas Chol slows down and depresses these effects. This study reconsiders the theory that Chol is the only responsible for the activity of saponins.
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Sun J, Feng Y, Wang Y, Ji Q, Cai G, Shi L, Wang Y, Huang Y, Zhang J, Li Q. α-hederin induces autophagic cell death in colorectal cancer cells through reactive oxygen species dependent AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway activation. Int J Oncol 2019; 54:1601-1612. [PMID: 30896843 PMCID: PMC6438428 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2019.4757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
α-hederin, a monodesmosidic triterpenoid saponin, had previously demonstrated strong anticancer effects. In the current study, the pharmacological mechanism of autophagic cell death induced by α-hederin was investigated in human colorectal cancer cells. First, through cell counting kit-8 and colony formation assays, it was demonstrated that α-hederin could inhibit the proliferation of HCT116 and HCT8 cell. Results of flow cytometry using fluorescein isothiocyanate Annexin V/propidium iodide and Hoechst 33258 staining indicated that α-hederin could induce apoptosis. Western blotting demonstrated that α-hederin could activate mitochondrial apoptosis signal pathway. Then, using light chain 3 lentiviral and electron microscope assay, it was demonstrated that α-hederin could induce autophagy in colorectal cancer cells. In addition, immunohistochemistry results from in vivo experiments also demonstrated that α-hederin could induce autophagy. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling was demonstrated to be activated by α-hederin, which could be blocked by reactive oxygen species (ROS) inhibitor NAC. Furthermore, NAC could inhibit apoptosis and autophagy induced by α-hederin. Finally, 3-MA (autophagy inhibitor) reduced the inhibition of α-hederin on cell activity, but it had no significant effect on apoptosis. In conclusion, α-hederin triggered apoptosis through ROS-activated mitochondrial signaling pathway and autophagic cell death through ROS dependent AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway activation in colorectal cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Sun
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Yu Feng
- Department of Medical Oncology, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Medical Oncology, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Qing Ji
- Department of Medical Oncology, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Gang Cai
- Department of Medical Oncology, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Lei Shi
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Yiyi Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Yan Huang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Jue Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Qi Li
- Department of Medical Oncology, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
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Linoleic and linolenic acid hydroperoxides interact differentially with biomimetic plant membranes in a lipid specific manner. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2019; 175:384-391. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2018.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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