Peri-arterial Autonomic Innervation of the Human Ear

Emerging roles of nerve-bone axis in modulating skeletal system

Over the past decades, emerging evidence in the literature has demonstrated that the innervation of bone is a crucial modulator for skeletal physiology and pathophysiology. The nerve-bone axis sparked extensive preclinical and clinical investigations aimed at elucidating the contribution of nerve-bone crosstalks to skeleton metabolism, homeostasis, and injury repair through the perspective of skeletal neurobiology. To date, peripheral nerves have been widely reported to mediate bone growth and development and fracture healing via the secretion of neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, axon guidance factors, and neurotrophins. Relevant studies have further identified several critical neural pathways that stimulate profound alterations in bone cell biology, revealing a complex interplay between the skeleton and nerve systems. In addition, inspired by nerve-bone crosstalk, novel drug delivery systems and bioactive materials have been developed to emulate and facilitate the process of natural bone repair through neuromodulation, eventually boosting osteogenesis for ideal skeletal tissue regeneration. Overall, this work aims to review the novel research findings that contribute to deepening the current understanding of the nerve-bone axis, bringing forth some schemas that can be translated into the clinical scenario to highlight the critical roles of neuromodulation in the skeletal system.

Networks of Nerve Fibers, and Blood and Lymphatic Vessels in the Mouse Auricle: The Structural Basis of Ear Acupuncture

Objective

Ear acupuncture, as a system for treating and preventing diseases through stimulation of points on the auricle, has been systematically introduced during the last 60 years. Although the auricular cartography was described somatotopically as an inverted fetus by Paul Nogier, MD, the underlying mechanism of auricular stimulation remains unclear. The aim of this research was to gain an understanding of the structural basis of auricular stimulation, as well as showing the distribution of the nerve fibers, and the blood and lymphatic vessels.

Materials and Methods

The distribution of nerve fibers, and blood and lymphatic vessels was examined in whole-mount auricular skins of mice by combining the biomarkers protein gene product 9.5, cluster of differentiation 31, and lymphatic-vessel endothelial hyaluronan receptor-1 following tissue-clearing treatment with multiple immunofluorescent staining.

Results

The labeled nerve fibers, and the blood and lymphatic vessels were distributed extensively in the inner and outer parts of the auricular skin. Auricular nerves aligning with blood vessels ran from the basal region to the peripheral region and crossed over lymphatic vessels, thus forming the neural, vascular, and lymphatic networks.

Conclusions

As these are important tissue components of auricular skin, this result implies that the auricular nerve fibers, and blood and lymphatic vessels may coordinate with each other to respond directly to auricular stimulation.

Functional anatomy of the vagus system - Emphasis on the somato-visceral interface

Due to its pivotal role in autonomic networks, the vagus attracts continuous interest from both basic scientists and clinicians. In particular, recent advances in vagus nerve stimulation strategies and their application to pathological conditions beyond epilepsy provide a good opportunity to recall basic features of vagal peripheral and central anatomy. In addition to the "classical" vagal brainstem nuclei, i.e., dorsal motor nucleus, nucleus ambiguus and nucleus tractus solitarii, the spinal trigeminal and paratrigeminal nuclei come into play as targets of vagal afferents. On the other hand, the nucleus of the solitary tract receives and integrates not only visceral but also somatic afferents. Thus, the vagus system participates significantly in what may be defined as "somato-visceral interface".

Current challenges in reliably targeting the noradrenergic locus coeruleus using transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS)

Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS), as a non-invasive brain stimulation technique may influence the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system (LC-NE system) via modulation of the Vagus Nerve (VN) which projects to the LC. Few human studies exist examining the effects of taVNS on the LC-NE system and studies to date assessing the ability of taVNS to target the LC yield heterogeneous results. The aim of this review is to present an overview of the current challenges in assessing effects of taVNS on LC function and how translational approaches spanning animal and human research can help in this regard. A particular emphasis of the review discusses how the effects of taVNS may be influenced by changes in structure and function of the LC-NE system across the human lifespan and in disease.

Sympathetic and Sensory-Motor Nerves in Peripheral Small Arteries

Small arteries, which play important roles in controlling blood flow, blood pressure, and capillary pressure, are under nervous influence. Their innervation is predominantly sympathetic and sensory motor in nature, and while some arteries are densely innervated, others are only sparsely so. Innervation of small arteries is a key mechanism in regulating vascular resistance. In the second half of the previous century, the physiology and pharmacology of this innervation were very actively investigated. In the past 10-20 yr, the activity in this field was more limited. With this review we highlight what has been learned during recent years with respect to development of small arteries and their innervation, some aspects of excitation-release coupling, interaction between sympathetic and sensory-motor nerves, cross talk between endothelium and vascular nerves, and some aspects of their role in vascular inflammation and hypertension. We also highlight what remains to be investigated to further increase our understanding of this fundamental aspect of vascular physiology.

Intrinsic Auricular Muscle Zone Stimulation Improves Walking Parameters of Parkinson's Patients Faster Than Levodopa in the Motion Capture Analysis: A Pilot Study

It has been demonstrated that intrinsic auricular muscles zone stimulation (IAMZS) can improve the motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD) patients who are examined with the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) motor scores. In the present pilot study, using motion capture technology, we aimed to investigate the efficacy of IAMZS compared to medication alone or in combination with medication. Ten PD patients (mean age: 54.8 ± 10.1 years) were enrolled. Each participant participated in three different sessions: sole medication, sole stimulation-20 min of IAMZS, and combined IAMZS (20 min) and medication. Each session was performed on different days but at the same time to be aligned with patients' drug intake. Motion capture recording sessions took place at baseline, 20, 40, and 60 min. Statistical analysis was conducted using one-way repeated measures ANOVA. Bonferroni correction was implemented for pairwise comparisons. The sole medication was ineffective to improve gait-related parameters of stride length, stride velocity, stance, swing, and turning speed. In the sole-stimulation group, pace-related gait parameters were significantly increased at 20 and 40 min. These improvements were observed in stride length at 20 (p = 0.0498) and 40 (p = 0.03) min, and also in the normalized stride velocity at 40 min (p-value = 0.02). Stride velocity also tended to be significant at 20 min (p = 0.06) in the sole-stimulation group. Combined IAMZS and medication demonstrated significant improvements in all the time segments for pace-related gait parameters [stride length: 20 min (p = 0.04), 40 min (p = 0.01), and 60 min (p < 0.01); stride velocity: 20 min (p < 0.01), 40 min (p = 0.01), and 60 min (p < 0.01)]. These findings demonstrated the fast action of the IAMZS on PD motor symptoms. Moreover, following the termination of IAMZS, a prolonged improvement in symptoms was observed at 40 min. The combined use of IAMZS with medication showed the most profound improvements. The IAMZS may be particularly useful during medication off periods and may also postpone the long-term side effects of high-dose levodopa. A large scale multicentric trial is required to validate the results obtained from this pilot study. Clinical Trial Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT03907007.

Concerning Auricular Vagal Nerve Stimulation: Occult Neural Networks

Auricular vagal nerve stimulation (AVNS) is an evolving neuromodulation technology that has a wide range of therapeutic applications across multiple disciplines of medical science. To date, AVNS results had been interpreted in the context of a monolog concept of the auricular branch of the vagus nerve (ABVN): that this is the sole network of the mechanism of action and/or structure in the auricular area of the stimulation in the context of activations in the brainstem nuclei, including the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), locus coeruleus (LC), trigeminal brainstem nuclei, and the nucleus cuneatus. This review considers the overlooked aspects of neural networks, connections, hijacking axons from cranial nerves and cervical sympathetic ganglions, the inhomogeneous distribution of perivascular sympathetic nerves, and intrinsic/extrinsic auricular muscles in the auricular zone that can explain the vagal and non-vagal nucleus activations in AVNS. In addition, the unique cortical representation of the human ear and interspecies differences in the auricula are discussed. The detailed auricular anatomy of the AVNS zone explored in the present study references structural and functional neural network information to overcome default designs and misinterpretations of existing research on AVNS to provide a better foundation for future investigations that use this modality.