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Baran B, Ölmez F, Çapa B, Dikilitas M. Defense Pathways of Wheat Plants Inoculated with Zymoseptoria tritici under NaCl Stress Conditions: An Overview. Life (Basel) 2024; 14:648. [PMID: 38792668 PMCID: PMC11122936 DOI: 10.3390/life14050648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Due to being sessile, plants develop a broad range of defense pathways when they face abiotic or biotic stress factors. Although plants are subjected to more than one type of stress at a time in nature, the combined effects of either multiple stresses of one kind (abiotic or biotic) or more kinds (abiotic and biotic) have now been realized in agricultural lands due to increases in global warming and environmental pollution, along with population increases. Soil-borne pathogens, or pathogens infecting aerial parts, can have devastating effects on plants when combined with other stressors. Obtaining yields or crops from sensitive or moderately resistant plants could be impossible, and it could be very difficult from resistant plants. The mechanisms of combined stress in many plants have previously been studied and elucidated. Recent studies proposed new defense pathways and mechanisms through signaling cascades. In light of these mechanisms, it is now time to develop appropriate strategies for crop protection under multiple stress conditions. This may involve using disease-resistant or stress-tolerant plant varieties, implementing proper irrigation and drainage practices, and improving soil quality. However, generation of both stress-tolerant and disease-resistant crop plants is of crucial importance. The establishment of a database and understanding of the defense mechanisms under combined stress conditions would be meaningful for the development of resistant and tolerant plants. It is clear that leaf pathogens show great tolerance to salinity stress and result in pathogenicity in crop plants. We noticed that regulation of the stomata through biochemical applications and some effort with the upregulation of the minor gene expressions indirectly involved with the defense mechanisms could be a great way to increase the defense metabolites without interfering with quality parameters. In this review, we selected wheat as a model plant and Zymoseptoria tritici as a model leaf pathogen to evaluate the defense mechanisms under saline conditions through physiological, biochemical, and molecular pathways and suggested various ways to generate tolerant and resistant cereal plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Behzat Baran
- Plant Protection Research Institute, Sur, Diyarbakır 21110, Türkiye;
| | - Fatih Ölmez
- Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Sivas University of Science and Technology, Sivas 58010, Türkiye;
| | - Beritan Çapa
- Department of Plant Protection Şanliurfa, Faculty of Agriculture, Harran University, Sanliurfa 63000, Türkiye;
| | - Murat Dikilitas
- Department of Plant Protection Şanliurfa, Faculty of Agriculture, Harran University, Sanliurfa 63000, Türkiye;
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Abraham LN, Oggenfuss U, Croll D. Population-level transposable element expression dynamics influence trait evolution in a fungal crop pathogen. mBio 2024; 15:e0284023. [PMID: 38349152 PMCID: PMC10936205 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02840-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The rapid adaptive evolution of microbes is driven by strong selection pressure acting on genetic variation. How adaptive genetic variation is generated within species and how such variation influences phenotypic trait expression is often not well understood though. We focused on the recent activity of transposable elements (TEs) using deep population genomics and transcriptomics analyses of a fungal plant pathogen with a highly active content of TEs in the genome. Zymoseptoria tritici causes one of the most damaging diseases on wheat, with recent adaptation to the host and environment being facilitated by TE-associated mutations. We obtained genomic and RNA-sequencing data from 146 isolates collected from a single wheat field. We established a genome-wide map of TE insertion polymorphisms in the population by analyzing recent TE insertions among individuals. We quantified the locus-specific transcription of individual TE copies and found considerable population variation at individual TE loci in the population. About 20% of all TE copies show transcription in the genome suggesting that genomic defenses such as repressive epigenetic marks and repeat-induced polymorphisms are at least partially ineffective at preventing the proliferation of TEs in the genome. A quarter of recent TE insertions are associated with expression variation of neighboring genes providing broad potential to influence trait expression. We indeed found that TE insertions are likely responsible for variation in virulence on the host and potentially diverse components of secondary metabolite production. Our large-scale transcriptomics study emphasizes how TE-derived polymorphisms segregate even in individual microbial populations and can broadly underpin trait variation in pathogens.IMPORTANCEPathogens can rapidly adapt to new hosts, antimicrobials, or changes in the environment. Adaptation arises often from mutations in the genome; however, how such variation is generated remains poorly understood. We investigated the most dynamic regions of the genome of Zymoseptoria tritici, a major fungal pathogen of wheat. We focused on the transcription of transposable elements. A large proportion of the transposable elements not only show signatures of potential activity but are also variable within a single population of the pathogen. We find that this variation in activity is likely influencing many important traits of the pathogen. Hence, our work provides insights into how a microbial species can adapt over the shortest time periods based on the activity of transposable elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leen Nanchira Abraham
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Genetics, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Ursula Oggenfuss
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Genetics, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Croll
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Genetics, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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Li R, Li Y, Xu W, Liu W, Xu X, Bi Y, Prusky D. Aabrm1-mediated melanin synthesis is essential to growth and development, stress adaption, and pathogenicity in Alternaria alternata. Front Microbiol 2024; 14:1327765. [PMID: 38274752 PMCID: PMC10808324 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1327765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Scytalone dehydratase (brm1) is one of the key enzymes in 1, 8-dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN) melanin synthesis, which mediates melanin biosythesis and regulates cell biological process of plant fungi, but its function in Alternaria alternata, the causal agent of pear black spot, is unclear. Brm1 in A. alternata was cloned, identified, and named as Aabrm1. An Aabrm1-deletion mutant was generated and revealed that the deletion of Aabrm1 leads to a significant decrease in melanin production and forms orange colony smooth spores. In addition, the deletion of Aabrm1 gene impaired infection structure information and penetration. The external stress resistance of ΔAabrm1 was significantly weakened, and, in particular, it is very sensitive to oxidative stress, and the contents of H2O2 and O2.- in ΔAabrm1 were significantly increased. Virulence of ΔAabrm1 was reduced in non-wound-inoculated pear leaves but not changed in wound-inoculated pear fruit. These results indicated that Aabrm1-mediated melanin synthesis plays an important role in the pathogenicity of A. alternata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yongcai Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Wenyi Xu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Wenjuan Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xiaobin Xu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yang Bi
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Dov Prusky
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Produce, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, Israel
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Chen H, King R, Smith D, Bayon C, Ashfield T, Torriani S, Kanyuka K, Hammond-Kosack K, Bieri S, Rudd J. Combined pangenomics and transcriptomics reveals core and redundant virulence processes in a rapidly evolving fungal plant pathogen. BMC Biol 2023; 21:24. [PMID: 36747219 PMCID: PMC9903594 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-023-01520-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studying genomic variation in rapidly evolving pathogens potentially enables identification of genes supporting their "core biology", being present, functional and expressed by all strains or "flexible biology", varying between strains. Genes supporting flexible biology may be considered to be "accessory", whilst the "core" gene set is likely to be important for common features of a pathogen species biology, including virulence on all host genotypes. The wheat-pathogenic fungus Zymoseptoria tritici represents one of the most rapidly evolving threats to global food security and was the focus of this study. RESULTS We constructed a pangenome of 18 European field isolates, with 12 also subjected to RNAseq transcription profiling during infection. Combining this data, we predicted a "core" gene set comprising 9807 sequences which were (1) present in all isolates, (2) lacking inactivating polymorphisms and (3) expressed by all isolates. A large accessory genome, consisting of 45% of the total genes, was also defined. We classified genetic and genomic polymorphism at both chromosomal and individual gene scales. Proteins required for essential functions including virulence had lower-than average sequence variability amongst core genes. Both core and accessory genomes encoded many small, secreted candidate effector proteins that likely interact with plant immunity. Viral vector-mediated transient in planta overexpression of 88 candidates failed to identify any which induced leaf necrosis characteristic of disease. However, functional complementation of a non-pathogenic deletion mutant lacking five core genes demonstrated that full virulence was restored by re-introduction of the single gene exhibiting least sequence polymorphism and highest expression. CONCLUSIONS These data support the combined use of pangenomics and transcriptomics for defining genes which represent core, and potentially exploitable, weaknesses in rapidly evolving pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxin Chen
- grid.418374.d0000 0001 2227 9389Department of Protecting Crops and the Environment, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts UK ,grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XPresent address: School of Agriculture, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangming District, Shenzhen, Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Robert King
- grid.418374.d0000 0001 2227 9389Department of Protecting Crops and the Environment, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts UK
| | - Dan Smith
- grid.418374.d0000 0001 2227 9389Department of Protecting Crops and the Environment, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts UK
| | - Carlos Bayon
- grid.418374.d0000 0001 2227 9389Department of Protecting Crops and the Environment, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts UK
| | - Tom Ashfield
- grid.418374.d0000 0001 2227 9389Department of Protecting Crops and the Environment, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts UK ,grid.418374.d0000 0001 2227 9389Crop Health and Protection (CHaP), Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts UK
| | - Stefano Torriani
- grid.420222.40000 0001 0669 0426Syngenta Crop Protection AG, Schaffhauserstrasse 101, CH-4332 Stein, Switzerland
| | - Kostya Kanyuka
- grid.418374.d0000 0001 2227 9389Department of Protecting Crops and the Environment, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts UK ,grid.17595.3f0000 0004 0383 6532Present address: National Institute for Agricultural Botany (NIAB), 93 Lawrence Weaver Road, Cambridge, UK
| | - Kim Hammond-Kosack
- grid.418374.d0000 0001 2227 9389Department of Protecting Crops and the Environment, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts UK
| | - Stephane Bieri
- grid.420222.40000 0001 0669 0426Syngenta Crop Protection AG, Schaffhauserstrasse 101, CH-4332 Stein, Switzerland
| | - Jason Rudd
- Department of Protecting Crops and the Environment, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Herts, UK.
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Tiley AMM, Lawless C, Pilo P, Karki SJ, Lu J, Long Z, Gibriel H, Bailey AM, Feechan A. The Zymoseptoria tritici white collar-1 gene, ZtWco-1, is required for development and virulence on wheat. Fungal Genet Biol 2022; 161:103715. [PMID: 35709910 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2022.103715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The fungus Zymoseptoria tritici causes Septoria Tritici Blotch (STB), which is one of the most devastating diseases of wheat in Europe. There are currently no fully durable methods of control against Z. tritici, so novel strategies are urgently required. One of the ways in which fungi are able to respond to their surrounding environment is through the use of photoreceptor proteins which detect light signals. Although previous evidence suggests that Z. tritici can detect light, no photoreceptor genes have been characterised in this pathogen. This study characterises ZtWco-1, a predicted photoreceptor gene in Z. tritici. The ZtWco-1 gene is a putative homolog to the blue light photoreceptor from Neurospora crassa, wc-1. Z. tritici mutants with deletions in ZtWco-1 have defects in hyphal branching, melanisation and virulence on wheat. In addition, we identify the putative circadian clock gene ZtFrq in Z. tritici. This study provides evidence for the genetic regulation of light detection in Z. tritici and it open avenues for future research into whether this pathogen has a circadian clock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M M Tiley
- Agri-Food Biosciences Institute, 18a Newforge Ln, Belfast BT9 5PX, United Kingdom; School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland.
| | - Colleen Lawless
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland; School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - Paola Pilo
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - Sujit J Karki
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - Jijun Lu
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - Zhuowei Long
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland
| | - Hesham Gibriel
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland; Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Andy M Bailey
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, United Kingdom
| | - Angela Feechan
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Republic of Ireland.
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Differential regulation and production of secondary metabolites among isolates of the fungal wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici. Appl Environ Microbiol 2022; 88:e0229621. [PMID: 35108092 PMCID: PMC8939313 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02296-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome of the wheat pathogenic fungus, Zymoseptoria tritici, represents extensive presence-absence variation in gene content. Here, we addressed variation in biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) content and biochemical profiles among three isolates. We analysed secondary metabolite properties based on genome, transcriptome and metabolome data. The isolates represent highly distinct genome architecture, but harbor similar repertoire of BGCs. Expression profiles for most BGCs show comparable patterns of regulation among the isolates, suggesting a conserved "biochemical infection program". For all three isolates, we observed a strong up-regulation of a putative abscisic acid (ABA) gene cluster during biotrophic host colonization, indicating that Z. tritici potentially interfere with host defenses by the biosynthesis of this phytohormone. Further, during in vitro growth the isolates show similar metabolomes congruent with the predicted BGC content. We assessed if secondary metabolite production is regulated by histone methylation using a mutant impaired in formation of facultative heterochromatin (H3K27me3). In contrast to other ascomycete fungi, chromatin modifications play a less prominent role in regulation of secondary metabolites. In summary, we show that Z. tritici has a conserved program of secondary metabolite production contrasting the immense variation in effector expression, some of these metabolites might play a key role during host colonization. Importance Zymoseptoria tritici is one of the most devastating pathogens of wheat. So far the molecular determinants of virulence and their regulation are poorly understood. Previous studies have focused on proteinasous virulence factors and their extensive diversity. In this study, we focus on secondary metabolites produced by Z. tritici. Using a comparative framework, we here characterize core and non-core metabolites produced by Z. tritici by combining genome, transcriptome and metabolome datasets. Our findings indicate highly conserved biochemical profiles contrasting genetic and phenotypic diversity of the field isolates investigated here. This discovery has relevance for future crop protection strategies.
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Ashraf S, Dhusia K, Verma S. Siderophores Mediated Iron Acquisition and Virulence of Brown Rot Disease in Stone Fruits Caused by Monilinia fructicola in Jammu and Kashmir. Fungal Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-53077-8_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Mohammadi N, Mehrabi R, Mirzadi Gohari A, Roostaei M, Mohammadi Goltapeh E, Safaie N, Kema GHJ. MADS-Box Transcription Factor ZtRlm1 Is Responsible for Virulence and Development of the Fungal Wheat Pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1976. [PMID: 33013739 PMCID: PMC7461931 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Zymoseptoria tritici is one of the most economically destructive wheat diseases all over the world and is a model fungal plant pathogen within the ascomycetes. In this study, the instrumental role of the ZtRlm1 gene encoding a MADS-box transcription factor (TF) in the infection process of Z. tritici was functionally characterized as these proteins play critical roles in the global gene regulation required for various developmental and physiological processes. Our infection assays showed that ZtRlm1 mutants were attenuated in disease development as a 30 and 90% reduction in chloro-necrotic lesions and pycnidia formation, respectively, were observed in plants inoculated with ZtRlm1 mutant strains demonstrating that ZtRlm1 is a crucial factor playing a significant role in the late stage of infection corresponding with pycnidial formation. Our expression analysis demonstrated that the transcript level of ZtRlm1 is induced at 2 and 20 days post-inoculation, coinciding with pycnidial sporulation. In addition, microscopic analyses showed that branch intensity and biomass production were significantly reduced, indicating that impaired pycnidia formation is a result of impaired differentiation and biomass production in the ZtRlm1 mutants. Furthermore, melanization, a phenomenon required for fruiting body formation, was significantly hampered in ZtRlm1 mutants as they were not melanized under all tested temperature and media conditions. Overall, our data showed that impaired disease development of the ZtRlm1 mutants is mainly due to the significant impact of ZtRlm1 in different cellular processes, including differentiation, branching, fungal biomass production, and melanization, in which identification of downstream genes are of interest to increase our understanding of this pathosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naser Mohammadi
- Dryland Agricultural Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (ARREO), Maragheh, Iran
| | - Rahim Mehrabi
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Amir Mirzadi Gohari
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Engineering, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
| | - Mozaffar Roostaei
- Dryland Agricultural Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (ARREO), Maragheh, Iran
| | | | - Naser Safaie
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Gert H J Kema
- Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen Plant Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
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Yates S, Mikaberidze A, Krattinger SG, Abrouk M, Hund A, Yu K, Studer B, Fouche S, Meile L, Pereira D, Karisto P, McDonald BA. Precision Phenotyping Reveals Novel Loci for Quantitative Resistance to Septoria Tritici Blotch. PLANT PHENOMICS (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2019; 2019:3285904. [PMID: 33313526 PMCID: PMC7706307 DOI: 10.34133/2019/3285904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Accurate, high-throughput phenotyping for quantitative traits is a limiting factor for progress in plant breeding. We developed an automated image analysis to measure quantitative resistance to septoria tritici blotch (STB), a globally important wheat disease, enabling identification of small chromosome intervals containing plausible candidate genes for STB resistance. 335 winter wheat cultivars were included in a replicated field experiment that experienced natural epidemic development by a highly diverse but fungicide-resistant pathogen population. More than 5.4 million automatically generated phenotypes were associated with 13,648 SNP markers to perform the GWAS. We identified 26 chromosome intervals explaining 1.9-10.6% of the variance associated with four independent resistance traits. Sixteen of the intervals overlapped with known STB resistance intervals, suggesting that our phenotyping approach can identify simultaneously (i.e., in a single experiment) many previously defined STB resistance intervals. Seventeen of the intervals were less than 5 Mbp in size and encoded only 173 genes, including many genes associated with disease resistance. Five intervals contained four or fewer genes, providing high priority targets for functional validation. Ten chromosome intervals were not previously associated with STB resistance, perhaps representing resistance to pathogen strains that had not been tested in earlier experiments. The SNP markers associated with these chromosome intervals can be used to recombine different forms of quantitative STB resistance that are likely to be more durable than pyramids of major resistance genes. Our experiment illustrates how high-throughput automated phenotyping can accelerate breeding for quantitative disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Yates
- Molecular Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alexey Mikaberidze
- Plant Pathology, Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Simon G. Krattinger
- Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Michael Abrouk
- Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Andreas Hund
- Crop Science, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kang Yu
- Crop Science, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Bruno Studer
- Molecular Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Simone Fouche
- Plant Pathology, Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lukas Meile
- Plant Pathology, Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Danilo Pereira
- Plant Pathology, Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Petteri Karisto
- Plant Pathology, Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Bruce A. McDonald
- Plant Pathology, Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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