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Fueda K, Komiya T, Minomo K, Horie K, Takehara M, Yamasaki S, Shiotsu H, Ohnuki T, Grambow B, Law GW, Ewing R, Utsunomiya S. Occurrence of radioactive cesium-rich micro-particles (CsMPs) in a school building located 2.8 km south-west of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 328:138566. [PMID: 37011818 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Radioactive Cs-rich microparticles (CsMPs) released from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) are a potential health risk through inhalation. Little has been documented on the occurrence of CsMPs, particularly their occurrence inside buildings. In this study, we quantitatively analyze the distribution and number of CsMPs in indoor dust samples collected from an elementary school located 2.8 km to the southwest of FDNPP. The school had remained deserted until 2016. Then, using a modified version of the autoradiography-based "quantifying CsMPs (mQCP) method," we collected samples and determined the number of CsMPs and Cs radioactive fraction (RF) values of the microparticles (defined as total Cs activity from CsMPs/bulk Cs activity of the entire sample). The numbers of CsMPs ranged from 653 to 2570 particles/(g dust) and 296-1273 particles/(g dust) on the first and second floors of the school, respectively. The corresponding RFs ranged between 6.85 - 38.9% and 4.48-6.61%, respectively. The number of CsMPs and RF values in additional outdoor samples collected near the school building were 23-63 particles/(g dust or soil) and 1.14-1.61%, respectively. The CsMPs were most abundant on the school's first floor near to the entrance, and the relative abundance was higher near the stairs on the second floor, indicating a likely CsMP dispersion path through the building. Additional wetting of the indoor samples combined with autoradiography revealed that indoor dusts had a distinct absence of intrinsic, soluble Cs species, such as CsOH. These combined observations indicate that a significant amount of poorly soluble CsMPs were likely contained in initial radioactive airmass plumes from the FDNPP and that the microparticles penetrated buildings. CsMPs could still be abundant at the location, with locally high Cs activity in indoor environments near to openings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuki Fueda
- Department of Chemistry, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
| | - Tatsuki Komiya
- Department of Chemistry, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
| | - Kenta Minomo
- Department of Chemistry, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan
| | - Kenji Horie
- National Institute of Polar Research, 10-3, Midori-cho, Tachikawa-shi, Tokyo, 190-8518, Japan; Department of Polar Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), Shonan Village, Hayama, Kanagawa, 240-0193, Japan
| | - Mami Takehara
- National Institute of Polar Research, 10-3, Midori-cho, Tachikawa-shi, Tokyo, 190-8518, Japan
| | - Shinya Yamasaki
- Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences and Center for Research in Isotopes and Environmental Dynamics, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8577 Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Shiotsu
- Nuclear Safety Research Center, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, 2-4, Shirakata-shirane, Tokai-Mura, Naka-Gun, Ibaraki, 319-1195, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Ohnuki
- Laboratory for Advanced Nuclear Energy, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
| | - Bernd Grambow
- SUBATECH, IMT Atlantique, CNRS-IN2P3, The University of Nantes, Nantes, 44307, France
| | - GarethT W Law
- Radiochemistry Unit, Department of Chemistry, The University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Finland
| | - RodneyC Ewing
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences and Center for International Security and Cooperation, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305-2115, USA
| | - Satoshi Utsunomiya
- Department of Chemistry, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395, Japan.
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Madas BG, Boei J, Fenske N, Hofmann W, Mezquita L. Effects of spatial variation in dose delivery: what can we learn from radon-related lung cancer studies? RADIATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL BIOPHYSICS 2022; 61:561-577. [PMID: 36208308 PMCID: PMC9630403 DOI: 10.1007/s00411-022-00998-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to radon progeny results in heterogeneous dose distributions in many different spatial scales. The aim of this review is to provide an overview on the state of the art in epidemiology, clinical observations, cell biology, dosimetry, and modelling related to radon exposure and its association with lung cancer, along with priorities for future research. Particular attention is paid on the effects of spatial variation in dose delivery within the organs, a factor not considered in radiation protection. It is concluded that a multidisciplinary approach is required to improve risk assessment and mechanistic understanding of carcinogenesis related to radon exposure. To achieve these goals, important steps would be to clarify whether radon can cause other diseases than lung cancer, and to investigate radon-related health risks in children or persons at young ages. Also, a better understanding of the combined effects of radon and smoking is needed, which can be achieved by integrating epidemiological, clinical, pathological, and molecular oncology data to obtain a radon-associated signature. While in vitro models derived from primary human bronchial epithelial cells can help to identify new and corroborate existing biomarkers, they also allow to study the effects of heterogeneous dose distributions including the effects of locally high doses. These novel approaches can provide valuable input and validation data for mathematical models for risk assessment. These models can be applied to quantitatively translate the knowledge obtained from radon exposure to other exposures resulting in heterogeneous dose distributions within an organ to support radiation protection in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balázs G Madas
- Environmental Physics Department, Centre for Energy Research, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Jan Boei
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Nora Fenske
- Federal Office for Radiation Protection, Munich (Neuherberg), Germany
| | - Werner Hofmann
- Biological Physics, Department of Chemistry and Physics of Materials, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Laura Mezquita
- Medical Oncology Department, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Translational Genomic and Targeted Therapies in Solid Tumors, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
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Yu KN. Radiation-Induced Rescue Effect: Insights from Microbeam Experiments. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:1548. [PMID: 36358251 PMCID: PMC9687443 DOI: 10.3390/biology11111548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The present paper reviews a non-targeted effect in radiobiology known as the Radiation-Induced Rescue Effect (RIRE) and insights gained from previous microbeam experiments on RIRE. RIRE describes the mitigation of radiobiological effects in targeted irradiated cells after they receive feedback signals from co-cultured non-irradiated bystander cells, or from the medium previously conditioning those co-cultured non-irradiated bystander cells. RIRE has established or has the potential of establishing relationships with other non-traditional new developments in the fields of radiobiology, including Radiation-Induced Bystander Effect (RIBE), Radiation-Induced Field Size Effect (RIFSE) and ultra-high dose rate (FLASH) effect, which are explained. The paper first introduces RIRE, summarizes previous findings, and surveys the mechanisms proposed for observations. Unique opportunities offered by microbeam irradiations for RIRE research and some previous microbeam studies on RIRE are then described. Some thoughts on future priorities and directions of research on RIRE exploiting unique features of microbeam radiations are presented in the last section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwan Ngok Yu
- Department of Physics, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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Yu K. Role of radiation-induced rescue effect in radiation field size effect. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2022.110143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Matsuya Y, Hamada N, Yachi Y, Satou Y, Ishikawa M, Date H, Sato T. Inflammatory Signaling and DNA Damage Responses after Local Exposure to an Insoluble Radioactive Microparticle. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14041045. [PMID: 35205797 PMCID: PMC8869995 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14041045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary A cesium-bearing microparticle (Cs-BMP) is an insoluble radioactive microparticle possessing high specific radioactivity, which was discovered after the incident at the Fukushima nuclear power plant. Due to their insoluble nature, such Cs-BMPs are assumed to adhere in the long term to normal tissue, leading to chronic local exposure. However, radiation risk due to the intake of internal exposure to radioactive cesium is conventionally estimated from the organ dose given by uniform exposure to soluble cesium. As such, it is critical to clarify the normal tissue effects posed by heterogeneous exposure to Cs-BMPs. This in vitro study reports on the relationship between the inflammatory responses and DNA damage induction during local exposure to a Cs-BMP. Abstract Cesium-bearing microparticles (Cs-BMPs) can reach the human respiratory system after inhalation, resulting in chronic local internal exposure. We previously investigated the spatial distribution of DNA damage induced in areas around a Cs-BMP; however, the biological impacts have not been fully clarified due to the limited amount of data. Here, we investigated the inflammatory signaling and DNA damage responses after local exposure to a Cs-BMP in vitro. We used two normal human lung cell lines, i.e., lung fibroblast cells (WI-38) and bronchial epithelial cells (HBEC3-KT). After 24 h exposure to a Cs-BMP, inflammation was evaluated by immunofluorescent staining for nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) p65 and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2). The number of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) was also detected by means of phospholylated histone H2AX (γ-H2AX) focus formation assay. Cs-BMP exposure significantly increased NF-κB p65 and COX-2 expressions, which were related to the number of γ-H2AX foci in the cell nuclei. Compared to the uniform (external) exposure to 137Cs γ-rays, NF-κB tended to be more activated in the cells proximal to the Cs-BMP, while both NF-κB p65 and COX-2 were significantly activated in the distal cells. Experiments with chemical inhibitors for NF-κB p65 and COX-2 suggested the involvement of such inflammatory responses both in the reduced radiosensitivity of the cells proximal to Cs-BMP and the enhanced radiosensitivity of the cells distal from Cs-BMP. The data show that local exposure to Cs-BMP leads to biological effects modified by the NF-κB pathway, suggesting that the radiation risk for Cs-BMP exposure can differ from that estimated based on conventional uniform exposure to normal tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Matsuya
- Nuclear Science and Engineering Center, Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), 2-4 Shirakata, Tokai 319-1195, Ibaraki, Japan;
- Correspondence:
| | - Nobuyuki Hamada
- Radiation Safety Unit, Biology and Environmental Chemistry Division, Sustainable System Research Laboratory, Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI), 2-11-1 Iwado-kita, Komae 201-8511, Tokyo, Japan;
| | - Yoshie Yachi
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12 Nishi-8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Hokkaido, Japan;
| | - Yukihiko Satou
- Collaborative Laboratories for Advanced Decommissioning Science (CLADS), Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), 790-1 Otsuka, Motooka Tomioka, Futaba 979-1151, Fukushima, Japan;
| | - Masayori Ishikawa
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12 Nishi-8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Hokkaido, Japan; (M.I.); (H.D.)
| | - Hiroyuki Date
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12 Nishi-8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Hokkaido, Japan; (M.I.); (H.D.)
| | - Tatsuhiko Sato
- Nuclear Science and Engineering Center, Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), 2-4 Shirakata, Tokai 319-1195, Ibaraki, Japan;
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Hagiwara H, Funaki H, Shiribiki N, Kanno M, Sanada Y. Characterization of radiocesium-bearing microparticles with different morphologies in soil around the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10967-021-08061-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Matsuya Y, McMahon SJ, Butterworth KT, Naijo S, Nara I, Yachi Y, Saga R, Ishikawa M, Sato T, Date H, Prise KM. Oxygen enhancement ratios of cancer cells after exposure to intensity modulated x-ray fields: DNA damage and cell survival. Phys Med Biol 2021; 66. [PMID: 33735839 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6560/abf011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Hypoxic cancer cells within solid tumours show radio-resistance, leading to malignant progression in fractionated radiotherapy. When prescribing dose to tumours under heterogeneous oxygen pressure with intensity-modulated radiation fields, intercellular signalling could have an impact on radiosensitivity between in-field and out-of-field (OF) cells. However, the impact of hypoxia on radio-sensitivity under modulated radiation intensity remains to be fully clarified. Here, we investigate the impact of hypoxia on in-field and OF radio-sensitivities using two types of cancer cells, DU145 and H1299. Using a nBIONIX hypoxic culture kit and a shielding technique to irradiate 50% of a cell culture flask, oxygen enhancement ratios for double-strand breaks (DSB) and cell death endpoints were determined. Thesein vitromeasurements indicate that hypoxia impacts OF cells, although the hypoxic impacts on OF cells for cell survival were dose-dependent and smaller compared to those for in-field and uniformly irradiated cells. These decreased radio-sensitivities of OF cells were shown as a consistent tendency for both DSB and cell death endpoints, suggesting that radiation-induced intercellular communication is of importance in advanced radiotherapy dose-distributions such as with intensity-modulated radiotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Matsuya
- Nuclear Science and Engineering Center, Research Group for Radiation Transport Analysis, Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), 2-4 Shirakata, Tokai, Ibaraki, 319-1195, Japan.,Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12 Nishi-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0812, Japan
| | - Stephen J McMahon
- Patrick G Johnston Centre for Cancer Research, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, BT7 9AE, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Karl T Butterworth
- Patrick G Johnston Centre for Cancer Research, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, BT7 9AE, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Shingo Naijo
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12 Nishi-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0812, Japan.,Department of Radiology, Tokyo University Hospital, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Isshi Nara
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Hokkaido University, Kita-15 Nishi-7, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-8638, Japan
| | - Yoshie Yachi
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12 Nishi-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0812, Japan
| | - Ryo Saga
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Hirosaki University, 66-1 Hon-cho, Hirosaki, 036-8564, Japan
| | - Masayori Ishikawa
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12 Nishi-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0812, Japan
| | - Tatsuhiko Sato
- Nuclear Science and Engineering Center, Research Group for Radiation Transport Analysis, Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), 2-4 Shirakata, Tokai, Ibaraki, 319-1195, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Date
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita-12 Nishi-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0812, Japan
| | - Kevin M Prise
- Patrick G Johnston Centre for Cancer Research, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, BT7 9AE, Belfast, United Kingdom
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Ojima M, Ito A, Usami N, Ohara M, Suzuki K, Kai M. Field size effects on DNA damage and proliferation in normal human cell populations irradiated with X-ray microbeams. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7001. [PMID: 33772061 PMCID: PMC7997867 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-86416-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
To clarify the health risks of internal radiation exposure, it is important to investigate the radiological effects of local exposure at cell levels from radioactive materials taken up by organs. Focusing on the response of cell populations post-irradiation, X-ray microbeams are very effective at reproducing the effects of local exposure within an internal exposure in vitro. The present study aims to clarify the effects of local exposure by investigating the response of normal human cell (MRC-5) populations irradiated with X-ray microbeams of different beam sizes to DNA damage. The populations of MRC-5 were locally irradiated with X-ray microbeams of 1 Gy at 0.02-1.89 mm2 field sizes, and analyzed whether the number of 53BP1 foci as DSB (DNA double strand break) per cell changed with the field size. We found that even at the same dose, the number of DSB per cell increased depending on the X-irradiated field size on the cell population. This result indicated that DNA damage repair of X-irradiated cells might be enhanced in small size fields surrounded by non-irradiated cells. This study suggests that X-irradiated cells received some signal (a rescue signal) from surrounding non-irradiated cells may be involved in the response of cell populations post-irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuaki Ojima
- Department of Environmental Health Science, Oita University of Nursing and Health Sciences, 2944-9 Megusuno, Oita, 840-1201, Japan.
| | - Atsushi Ito
- School of Engineering, Tokai University, Hiratsuka, Kanagawa, 259-1292, Japan
| | - Noriko Usami
- Photon Factory, Institute of Materials Structure Science, KEK, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0801, Japan
| | - Maki Ohara
- Photon Factory, Institute of Materials Structure Science, KEK, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0801, Japan
| | - Keiji Suzuki
- Department of Radiation Medical Sciences, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, 852-8523, Japan
| | - Michiaki Kai
- Department of Environmental Health Science, Oita University of Nursing and Health Sciences, 2944-9 Megusuno, Oita, 840-1201, Japan
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Matsuya Y, Nakano T, Kai T, Shikazono N, Akamatsu K, Yoshii Y, Sato T. A Simplified Cluster Analysis of Electron Track Structure for Estimating Complex DNA Damage Yields. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21051701. [PMID: 32131419 PMCID: PMC7084883 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Complex DNA damage, defined as at least two vicinal lesions within 10-20 base pairs (bp), induced after exposure to ionizing radiation, is recognized as fatal damage to human tissue. Due to the difficulty of directly measuring the aggregation of DNA damage at the nano-meter scale, many cluster analyses of inelastic interactions based on Monte Carlo simulation for radiation track structure in liquid water have been conducted to evaluate DNA damage. Meanwhile, the experimental technique to detect complex DNA damage has evolved in recent decades, so both approaches with simulation and experiment get used for investigating complex DNA damage. During this study, we propose a simplified cluster analysis of ionization and electronic excitation events within 10 bp based on track structure for estimating complex DNA damage yields for electron and X-ray irradiations. We then compare the computational results with the experimental complex DNA damage coupled with base damage (BD) measured by enzymatic cleavage and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The computational results agree well with experimental fractions of complex damage yields, i.e., single and double strand breaks (SSBs, DSBs) and complex BD, when the yield ratio of BD/SSB is assumed to be 1.3. Considering the comparison of complex DSB yields, i.e., DSB + BD and DSB + 2BD, between simulation and experimental data, we find that the aggregation degree of the events along electron tracks reflects the complexity of induced DNA damage, showing 43.5% of DSB induced after 70 kVp X-ray irradiation can be classified as a complex form coupled with BD. The present simulation enables us to quantify the type of complex damage which cannot be measured through in vitro experiments and helps us to interpret the experimental detection efficiency for complex BD measured by AFM. This simple model for estimating complex DNA damage yields contributes to the precise understanding of the DNA damage complexity induced after X-ray and electron irradiations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Matsuya
- Nuclear Science and Engineering Center, Research Group for Radiation Transport Analysis, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, 2-4 Shirakata, Tokai, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan
- Correspondence:
| | - Toshiaki Nakano
- Department of Quantum life Science, Quantum Beam Science Research Directorate, National Institutes of Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, 8-1-7 Umemidai, Kizugawa-shi, Kyoto 619-0215, Japan
| | - Takeshi Kai
- Nuclear Science and Engineering Center, Research Group for Radiation Transport Analysis, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, 2-4 Shirakata, Tokai, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan
| | - Naoya Shikazono
- Department of Quantum life Science, Quantum Beam Science Research Directorate, National Institutes of Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, 8-1-7 Umemidai, Kizugawa-shi, Kyoto 619-0215, Japan
| | - Ken Akamatsu
- Department of Quantum life Science, Quantum Beam Science Research Directorate, National Institutes of Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, 8-1-7 Umemidai, Kizugawa-shi, Kyoto 619-0215, Japan
| | - Yuji Yoshii
- Central Institute of Isotope Science, Hokkaido University, Kita-15 Nishi-7, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0815, Japan
| | - Tatsuhiko Sato
- Nuclear Science and Engineering Center, Research Group for Radiation Transport Analysis, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, 2-4 Shirakata, Tokai, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan
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