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Hadjittofi C, Feretis M, Martin J, Harper S, Huguet E. Liver regeneration biology: Implications for liver tumour therapies. World J Clin Oncol 2021; 12:1101-1156. [PMID: 35070734 PMCID: PMC8716989 DOI: 10.5306/wjco.v12.i12.1101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The liver has remarkable regenerative potential, with the capacity to regenerate after 75% hepatectomy in humans and up to 90% hepatectomy in some rodent models, enabling it to meet the challenge of diverse injury types, including physical trauma, infection, inflammatory processes, direct toxicity, and immunological insults. Current understanding of liver regeneration is based largely on animal research, historically in large animals, and more recently in rodents and zebrafish, which provide powerful genetic manipulation experimental tools. Whilst immensely valuable, these models have limitations in extrapolation to the human situation. In vitro models have evolved from 2-dimensional culture to complex 3 dimensional organoids, but also have shortcomings in replicating the complex hepatic micro-anatomical and physiological milieu. The process of liver regeneration is only partially understood and characterized by layers of complexity. Liver regeneration is triggered and controlled by a multitude of mitogens acting in autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine ways, with much redundancy and cross-talk between biochemical pathways. The regenerative response is variable, involving both hypertrophy and true proliferative hyperplasia, which is itself variable, including both cellular phenotypic fidelity and cellular trans-differentiation, according to the type of injury. Complex interactions occur between parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells, and regeneration is affected by the status of the liver parenchyma, with differences between healthy and diseased liver. Finally, the process of termination of liver regeneration is even less well understood than its triggers. The complexity of liver regeneration biology combined with limited understanding has restricted specific clinical interventions to enhance liver regeneration. Moreover, manipulating the fundamental biochemical pathways involved would require cautious assessment, for fear of unintended consequences. Nevertheless, current knowledge provides guiding principles for strategies to optimise liver regeneration potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Hadjittofi
- University Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Center, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Feretis
- University Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Center, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Jack Martin
- University Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Center, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Harper
- University Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Center, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Emmanuel Huguet
- University Department of Surgery, Addenbrookes Hospital, NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research and Academic Health Sciences Center, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, United Kingdom
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Mora FAA, Musheshe N, Arroyave Ospina JC, Geng Y, Soto JM, Rodrigo JA, Alieva T, Buist-Homan M, Lezoualc'h F, Cheng X, Schmidt M, Moshage H. Metformin protects against diclofenac-induced toxicity in primary rat hepatocytes by preserving mitochondrial integrity via a pathway involving EPAC. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 143:112072. [PMID: 34464747 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE It has been shown that the antidiabetic drug metformin protects hepatocytes against toxicity by various stressors. Chronic or excessive consumption of diclofenac (DF) - a pain-relieving drug, leads to drug-induced liver injury via a mechanism involving mitochondrial damage and ultimately apoptotic death of hepatocytes. However, whether metformin protects against DF-induced toxicity is unknown. Recently, it was also shown that cAMP elevation is protective against DF-induced apoptotic death in hepatocytes, a protective effect primarily involving the downstream cAMP effector EPAC and preservation of mitochondrial function. This study therefore aimed at investigating whether metformin protects against DF-induced toxicity via cAMP-EPACs. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Primary rat hepatocytes were exposed to 400 µmol/L DF. CE3F4 or ESI-O5 were used as EPAC-1 or 2 inhibitors respectively. Apoptosis was measured by caspase-3 activity and necrosis by Sytox green staining. Seahorse X96 assay was used to determine mitochondrial function. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was measured using MitoSox, mitochondrial MnSOD expression was determined by immunostaining and mitochondrial morphology (fusion and fission ratio) by 3D refractive index imaging. KEY RESULTS Metformin (1 mmol/L) was protective against DF-induced apoptosis in hepatocytes. This protective effect was EPAC-dependent (mainly EPAC-2). Metformin restored mitochondrial morphology in an EPAC-independent manner. DF-induced mitochondrial dysfunction which was demonstrated by decreased oxygen consumption rate, an increased ROS production and a reduced MnSOD level, were all reversed by metformin in an EPAC-dependent manner. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Metformin protects hepatocytes against DF-induced toxicity via cAMP-dependent EPAC-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Alejandro Aguilar Mora
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Nshunge Musheshe
- Deptartment Molecular Pharmacology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute for Asthma and COPD, GRIAC, University Medical Center Groningen University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Johanna C Arroyave Ospina
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Yana Geng
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Juan M Soto
- Department of Optics and Faculty of Physical Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain.
| | - José A Rodrigo
- Department of Optics and Faculty of Physical Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain.
| | - Tatiana Alieva
- Department of Optics and Faculty of Physical Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain.
| | - Manon Buist-Homan
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands; Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Frank Lezoualc'h
- Inserm UMR-1048, Institut des Maladies Metaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Univ Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France.
| | - Xiaodong Cheng
- Department of Integrative Biology & Pharmacology, Texas Therapeutics Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Martina Schmidt
- Deptartment Molecular Pharmacology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute for Asthma and COPD, GRIAC, University Medical Center Groningen University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Han Moshage
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands; Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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Aguilar Mora FA, Musheshe N, Oun A, Buist-Homan M, Lezoualc'h F, Cheng X, Schmidt M, Moshage H. Elevated cAMP Protects against Diclofenac-Induced Toxicity in Primary Rat Hepatocytes: A Protective Effect Mediated by the Exchange Protein Directly Activated by cAMP/cAMP-Regulated Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factors. Mol Pharmacol 2021; 99:294-307. [PMID: 33574047 PMCID: PMC11033960 DOI: 10.1124/molpharm.120.000217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic consumption of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac may induce drug-induced liver injury (DILI). The mechanism of diclofenac-induced liver injury is partially elucidated and involves mitochondrial damage. Elevated cAMP protects hepatocytes against bile acid-induced injury. However, it is unknown whether cAMP protects against DILI and, if so, which downstream targets of cAMP are implicated in the protective mechanism, including the classic protein kinase A (PKA) pathway or alternative pathways like the exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (EPAC). The aim of this study was to investigate whether cAMP and/or its downstream targets protect against diclofenac-induced injury in hepatocytes. Rat hepatocytes were exposed to 400 µmol/l diclofenac. Apoptosis and necrosis were measured by caspase-3 activity assay and Sytox green staining, respectively. Mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was measured by JC-10 staining. mRNA and protein expression were assessed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and Western blot, respectively. The cAMP-elevating agent 7β-acetoxy-8,13-epoxy-1α,6β,9α-trihydroxylabd-14-en-11-one (forskolin), the pan-phosphodiesterase inhibitor IBMX, and EPAC inhibitors 5,7-dibromo-6-fluoro-3,4-dihydro-2-methyl-1(2H)-quinoline carboxaldehyde (CE3F4) and ESI-O5 were used to assess the role of cAMP and its effectors, PKA or EPAC. Diclofenac exposure induced apoptotic cell death and loss of MMP in hepatocytes. Both forskolin and IBMX prevented diclofenac-induced apoptosis. EPAC inhibition but not PKA inhibition abolished the protective effect of forskolin and IBMX. Forskolin and IBMX preserved the MMP, whereas both EPAC inhibitors diminished this effect. Both EPAC1 and EPAC2 were expressed in hepatocytes and localized in mitochondria. cAMP elevation protects hepatocytes against diclofenac-induced cell death, a process primarily involving EPACs. The cAMP/EPAC pathway may be a novel target for treatment of DILI. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study shows two main highlights. First, elevated cAMP levels protect against diclofenac-induced apoptosis in primary hepatocytes via maintenance of mitochondrial integrity. In addition, this study proposes the existence of mitochondrial cAMP-EPAC microdomains in rat hepatocytes, opening new avenues for targeted therapy in drug-induced liver injury (DILI). Both EPAC1 and EPAC2, but not protein kinase A, are responsible for this protective effect. Our findings present cAMP-EPAC as a potential target for the treatment of DILI and liver injury involving mitochondrial dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Alejandro Aguilar Mora
- Dept. Gastroenterology and Hepatology (F.A.A.M., M.B.-H., H.M.), Dept. Molecular Pharmacology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute for Asthma and COPD, GRIAC (N.M., A.O., M.S.), Dept. Laboratory Medicine (M.B.-H., H.M.), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands; Inserm UMR-1048, Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Univ Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France (F.L.); and Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, Texas Therapeutics Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (X.C.)
| | - Nshunge Musheshe
- Dept. Gastroenterology and Hepatology (F.A.A.M., M.B.-H., H.M.), Dept. Molecular Pharmacology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute for Asthma and COPD, GRIAC (N.M., A.O., M.S.), Dept. Laboratory Medicine (M.B.-H., H.M.), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands; Inserm UMR-1048, Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Univ Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France (F.L.); and Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, Texas Therapeutics Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (X.C.)
| | - Asmaa Oun
- Dept. Gastroenterology and Hepatology (F.A.A.M., M.B.-H., H.M.), Dept. Molecular Pharmacology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute for Asthma and COPD, GRIAC (N.M., A.O., M.S.), Dept. Laboratory Medicine (M.B.-H., H.M.), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands; Inserm UMR-1048, Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Univ Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France (F.L.); and Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, Texas Therapeutics Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (X.C.)
| | - Manon Buist-Homan
- Dept. Gastroenterology and Hepatology (F.A.A.M., M.B.-H., H.M.), Dept. Molecular Pharmacology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute for Asthma and COPD, GRIAC (N.M., A.O., M.S.), Dept. Laboratory Medicine (M.B.-H., H.M.), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands; Inserm UMR-1048, Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Univ Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France (F.L.); and Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, Texas Therapeutics Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (X.C.)
| | - Frank Lezoualc'h
- Dept. Gastroenterology and Hepatology (F.A.A.M., M.B.-H., H.M.), Dept. Molecular Pharmacology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute for Asthma and COPD, GRIAC (N.M., A.O., M.S.), Dept. Laboratory Medicine (M.B.-H., H.M.), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands; Inserm UMR-1048, Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Univ Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France (F.L.); and Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, Texas Therapeutics Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (X.C.)
| | - Xiaodong Cheng
- Dept. Gastroenterology and Hepatology (F.A.A.M., M.B.-H., H.M.), Dept. Molecular Pharmacology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute for Asthma and COPD, GRIAC (N.M., A.O., M.S.), Dept. Laboratory Medicine (M.B.-H., H.M.), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands; Inserm UMR-1048, Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Univ Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France (F.L.); and Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, Texas Therapeutics Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (X.C.)
| | - Martina Schmidt
- Dept. Gastroenterology and Hepatology (F.A.A.M., M.B.-H., H.M.), Dept. Molecular Pharmacology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute for Asthma and COPD, GRIAC (N.M., A.O., M.S.), Dept. Laboratory Medicine (M.B.-H., H.M.), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands; Inserm UMR-1048, Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Univ Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France (F.L.); and Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, Texas Therapeutics Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (X.C.)
| | - Han Moshage
- Dept. Gastroenterology and Hepatology (F.A.A.M., M.B.-H., H.M.), Dept. Molecular Pharmacology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute for Asthma and COPD, GRIAC (N.M., A.O., M.S.), Dept. Laboratory Medicine (M.B.-H., H.M.), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands; Inserm UMR-1048, Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Univ Toulouse Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France (F.L.); and Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, Texas Therapeutics Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas (X.C.)
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