The MTH1 inhibitor TH588 is a microtubule-modulating agent that eliminates cancer cells by activating the mitotic surveillance pathway

MTH1 inhibition synergizes with ROS-inducing agents to trigger cervical cancer cells undergoing parthanatos

Cervical cancer cells possess high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS); thus, increasing oxidative stress above the toxicity threshold to induce cell death is a promising chemotherapeutic strategy. However, the underlying mechanisms of cell death are elusive, and efficacy and toxicity issues remain. Within DNA, 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoG) is the most frequent base lesion repaired by 8-oxoguanine glycosylase 1 (OGG1)-initiated base excision repair. Cancer cells also express high levels of MutT homolog 1 (MTH1), which prevents DNA replication-induced incorporation of 8-oxoG into the genome by hydrolyzing 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine 5'-triphosphate (8-oxo-dGTP). Here, we revealed that ROS-inducing agents triggered cervical cancer to undergo parthanatos, which was mainly induced by massive DNA strand breaks resulting from overwhelming 8-oxoG excision by OGG1. Furthermore, the MTH1 inhibitor synergized with a relatively low dose of ROS-inducing agents by enhancing 8-oxoG loading in the DNA. In vivo, this drug combination suppressed the growth of tumor xenografts, and this inhibitory effect was significantly decreased in the absence of OGG1. Hence, the present study highlights the roles of base repair enzymes in cell death induction and suggests that the combination of lower doses of ROS-inducing agents with MTH1 inhibitors may be a more selective and safer strategy for cervical cancer chemotherapy.

Mitotic MTH1 inhibitor TH1579 induces PD-L1 expression and inflammatory response through the cGAS-STING pathway

The mitotic MTH1 inhibitor TH1579 is a dual inhibitor that inhibits mitosis and incorporation of oxidative DNA damage and leads to cancer-specific cell death. The response to immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) treatment is often augmented by DNA damaging agents through the cGAS-STING pathway. This study investigates whether TH1579 can improve the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockades through its immunomodulatory properties. Various human and murine cancer cell lines were treated with mitotic MTH1i TH1579, and the expression of PD-L1 and T-cell infiltration-related chemokines was analysed by flow cytometry and real-time qPCR. Syngeneic mouse models were established to examine the combined effect of TH1579 and PD-L1 blockade. In our investigation, we found that TH1579 upregulates PD-L1 expression at both the protein and mRNA levels in human cancer cell lines. However, in murine cell lines, the increase was less pronounced. An in vivo experiment in a syngeneic mouse melanoma model showed that TH1579 treatment significantly increased the efficacy of atezolizumab, an anti-PD-L1 antibody, compared to vehicle or atezolizumab monotherapy. Furthermore, TH1579 exhibited immune-modulatory properties, elevating cytokines such as IFN-β and chemokines including CCL5 and CXCL10, in a cGAS-STING pathway-dependent manner. In conclusion, TH1579 has the potential to improve ICI treatment by modulating immune checkpoint-related proteins and pathways.

OGG1 competitive inhibitors show important off-target effects by directly inhibiting efflux pumps and disturbing mitotic progression

One of the most abundant DNA lesions induced by Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is 8-oxoG, a highly mutagenic lesion that compromises genetic instability when not efficiently repaired. 8-oxoG is specifically recognized by the DNA-glycosylase OGG1 that excises the base and initiates the Base Excision Repair pathway (BER). Furthermore, OGG1 has not only a major role in DNA repair but it is also involved in transcriptional regulation. Cancer cells are particularly exposed to ROS, thus challenging their capacity to process oxidative DNA damage has been proposed as a promising therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. Two competitive inhibitors of OGG1 (OGG1i) have been identified, TH5487 and SU0268, which bind to the OGG1 catalytic pocket preventing its fixation to the DNA. Early studies with these inhibitors show an enhanced cellular sensitivity to cytotoxic drugs and a reduction in the inflammatory response. Our study uncovers two unreported off-targets effects of these OGG1i that are independent of OGG1. In vitro and in cellulo approaches have unveiled that OGG1i TH5487 and SU0268, despite an unrelated molecular structure, are able to inhibit some members of the ABC family transporters, in particular ABC B1 (MDR1) and ABC G2 (BCRP). The inhibition of these efflux pumps by OGG1 inhibitors results in a higher intra-cellular accumulation of various fluorescent probes and drugs, and largely contributes to the enhanced cytotoxicity observed when the inhibitors are combined with cytotoxic agents. Furthermore, we found that SU0268 has an OGG1-independent anti-mitotic activity-by interfering with metaphase completion-resulting in a high cellular toxicity. These two off-target activities are observed at concentrations of OGG1i that are normally used for in vivo studies. It is thus critical to consider these previously unreported non-specific effects when interpreting studies using TH5487 and SU0268 in the context of OGG1 inhibition. Additionally, our work highlights the persistent need for new specific inhibitors of the enzymatic activity of OGG1.

Mitotic MTH1 Inhibitors in Treatment of Cancer

The DNA damage response (DDR) protein MTH1 is sanitising the oxidized dNTP pool and preventing incorporation of oxidative damage into DNA and has an emerging role in mitosis. It is a stress-induced protein and often found to be overexpressed in cancer. Mitotic MTH1 inhibitors arrest cells in mitosis and result in incorporation of oxidative damage into DNA and selective killing of cancer cells. Here, I discuss the leading mitotic MTH1 inhibitor TH1579 (OXC-101, karonudib), now being evaluated in clinical trials, and describe its dual effect on mitosis and incorporation of oxidative DNA damage in cancer cells. I describe why MTH1 inhibitors that solely inhibits the enzyme activity fail to kill cancer cells and discuss if MTH1 is a valid target for cancer treatment. I discuss emerging roles of MTH1 in regulating tubulin polymerisation and mitosis and the necessity of developing the basic science insights along with translational efforts. I also give a perspective on how edgetic perturbation is making target validation difficult in the DDR field.

MTH1 suppression enhances the stemness of MCF7 through upregulation of STAT3

MTH1 protein can sanitize the damaged (d)NTP pool and MTH1 inhibitors have been developed to impede the growth of rapidly proliferating tumor cells; however, the effect of MTH1 inhibition on breast cancer stemness has not been reported yet. Here, we constructed breast cancer cell lines with the stable depletion of MTH1. MTH1 suppression clearly increased the ratio of CD44⁺CD24^-/low subpopulations and promoted the formation of tumorspheres in MCF7 and T47D cells. RNA expression profiling, RT-qPCR and Western blotting showed the upregulation of master stem cell transcription factors Sox2, Oct4 and Nanog in MTH1 knockdown cells. GSEA suggested and Western blotting verified that MTH1 knockdown increased the expression of phosphorylated STAT3 (Tyr705). Furthermore, we indirectly demonstrated that the increased concentration of 8-oxo-dGTP and 8-oxo-GTP in MTH1-knockdown cells and exogenous 8-oxoGTP, rather than 8-oxo-dGTP, could significantly increase the phosphorylation of STAT3. In conclusion, this work indicates that MTH1 inhibition increased the proportion of breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) and promoted stemness properties in MCF7 cells.

Compilation and Evaluation of Fatty Acid Mimetics Screening Library

Focused compound libraries are well-established tools for hit identification in drug discovery and chemical probe development. We present the compilation and application of a focused screening library of fatty acid mimetics (FAMs), which are compounds designed to bind the orthosteric site proteins that endogenously accommodate natural fatty acids and lipid metabolites. This set complies with chemical properties of FAM and was found suitable for use also in cellular setting. Several hits were retrieved in screening the focused library against diverse fatty acid binding targets including the enzymes soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) and leukotriene A4 hydrolase (LTA4H), the nuclear receptors peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and retinoid X receptor α (RXRα), the carrier proteins fatty acid binding protein 4 and 5 (FABP4 and FABP5), as well as the G-protein coupled receptors leukotriene B4 receptor 1 (BLT1) and free-fatty acid receptor 1 (FFAR1). Thus, the focused FAM library is suitable to obtain chemical starting matter for fatty acid binding proteins and valuable extends available screening collections.

Inhibition of Oxidized Nucleotide Sanitation By TH1579 and Conventional Chemotherapy Cooperatively Enhance Oxidative DNA Damage and Survival in AML

Currently, the majority of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) still die of their disease due to primary resistance or relapse toward conventional reactive oxygen species (ROS)- and DNA damage-inducing chemotherapy regimens. Herein, we explored the therapeutic potential to enhance chemotherapy response in AML, by targeting the ROS scavenger enzyme MutT homolog 1 (MTH1, NUDT1), which protects cellular integrity through prevention of fatal chemotherapy-induced oxidative DNA damage. We demonstrate that MTH1 is a potential druggable target expressed by the majority of patients with AML and the inv(16)/KITD816Y AML mouse model mimicking the genetics of patients with AML exhibiting poor response to standard chemotherapy (i.e., anthracycline & cytarabine). Strikingly, combinatorial treatment of inv(16)/KITD816Y AML cells with the MTH1 inhibitor TH1579 and ROS- and DNA damage-inducing standard chemotherapy induced growth arrest and incorporated oxidized nucleotides into DNA leading to significantly increased DNA damage. Consistently, TH1579 and chemotherapy synergistically inhibited growth of clonogenic inv(16)/KITD816Y AML cells without substantially inhibiting normal clonogenic bone marrow cells. In addition, combinatorial treatment of inv(16)/KITD816Y AML mice with TH1579 and chemotherapy significantly reduced AML burden and prolonged survival compared with untreated or single treated mice. In conclusion, our study provides a rationale for future clinical studies combining standard AML chemotherapy with TH1579 to boost standard chemotherapy response in patients with AML. Moreover, other cancer entities treated with ROS- and DNA damage-inducing chemo- or radiotherapies might benefit therapeutically from complementary treatment with TH1579.

Image-Based Annotation of Chemogenomic Libraries for Phenotypic Screening

Phenotypical screening is a widely used approach in drug discovery for the identification of small molecules with cellular activities. However, functional annotation of identified hits often poses a challenge. The development of small molecules with narrow or exclusive target selectivity such as chemical probes and chemogenomic (CG) libraries, greatly diminishes this challenge, but non-specific effects caused by compound toxicity or interference with basic cellular functions still pose a problem to associate phenotypic readouts with molecular targets. Hence, each compound should ideally be comprehensively characterized regarding its effects on general cell functions. Here, we report an optimized live-cell multiplexed assay that classifies cells based on nuclear morphology, presenting an excellent indicator for cellular responses such as early apoptosis and necrosis. This basic readout in combination with the detection of other general cell damaging activities of small molecules such as changes in cytoskeletal morphology, cell cycle and mitochondrial health provides a comprehensive time-dependent characterization of the effect of small molecules on cellular health in a single experiment. The developed high-content assay offers multi-dimensional comprehensive characterization that can be used to delineate generic effects regarding cell functions and cell viability, allowing an assessment of compound suitability for subsequent detailed phenotypic and mechanistic studies.

Disrupted mitochondrial homeostasis coupled with mitotic arrest generates antineoplastic oxidative stress

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) serve as critical signals in various cellular processes. Excessive ROS cause cell death or senescence and mediates the therapeutic effect of many cancer drugs. Recent studies showed that ROS increasingly accumulate during G2/M arrest, the underlying mechanism, however, has not been fully elucidated. Here, we show that in cancer cells treated with anticancer agent TH287 or paclitaxel that causes M arrest, mitochondria accumulate robustly and produce excessive mitochondrial superoxide, which causes oxidative DNA damage and undermines cell survival and proliferation. While mitochondrial mass is greatly increased in cells arrested at M phase, the mitochondrial function is compromised, as reflected by reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, increased SUMOylation and acetylation of mitochondrial proteins, as well as an increased metabolic reliance on glycolysis. CHK1 functional disruption decelerates cell cycle, spares the M arrest and attenuates mitochondrial oxidative stress. Induction of mitophagy and blockade of mitochondrial biogenesis, measures that reduce mitochondrial accumulation, also decelerate cell cycle and abrogate M arrest-coupled mitochondrial oxidative stress. These results suggest that cell cycle progression and mitochondrial homeostasis are interdependent and coordinated, and that impairment of mitochondrial homeostasis and the associated redox signaling may mediate the antineoplastic effect of the M arrest-inducing chemotherapeutics. Our findings provide insights into the fate of cells arrested at M phase and have implications in cancer therapy.

TH588 and Low-Dose Nocodazole Impair Chromosome Congression by Suppressing Microtubule Turnover within the Mitotic Spindle

Simple Summary

A promising anti-cancer compound TH588 has been recently identified as a microtubule-targeting agent that inhibits tubulin polymerization in vitro and interferes with microtubule dynamics in interphase cells. Although it was shown to arrest cells in mitosis, its effect on microtubule dynamics in dividing cells remained unknown. By analyzing microtubule dynamics in living cells treated with either TH588 or low-dose nocodazole, we revealed that both of these drugs stabilize microtubules within the mitotic spindle, leading to premature formation of kinetochore-microtubule end-on attachments on uncongressed chromosomes. This causes mitotic arrest, ultimately resulting in cell death or cell division with uncongressed chromosomes. Both of these cell fates could contribute to the selective effect associated with the activity of TH588 in cancer cells.

Abstract

Microtubule-targeting agents (MTAs) have been used for decades to treat different hematologic and solid cancers. The mode of action of these drugs mainly relies on their ability to bind tubulin subunits and/or microtubules and interfere with microtubule dynamics. In addition to its MTH1-inhibiting activity, TH588 has been recently identified as an MTA, whose anticancer properties were shown to largely depend on its microtubule-targeting ability. Although TH588 inhibited tubulin polymerization in vitro and reduced microtubule plus-end mobility in interphase cells, its effect on microtubule dynamics within the mitotic spindle of dividing cells remained unknown. Here, we performed an in-depth analysis of the impact of TH588 on spindle-associated microtubules and compared it to the effect of low-dose nocodazole. We show that both treatments reduce microtubule turnover within the mitotic spindle. This microtubule-stabilizing effect leads to premature formation of kinetochore-microtubule end-on attachments on uncongressed chromosomes, which consequently cannot be transported to the cell equator, thereby delaying cell division and leading to cell death or division with uncongressed chromosomes.

Karonudib has potent anti-tumor effects in preclinical models of B-cell lymphoma

Chemo-immunotherapy has improved survival in B-cell lymphoma patients, but refractory/relapsed diseases still represent a major challenge, urging for development of new therapeutics. Karonudib (TH1579) was developed to inhibit MTH1, an enzyme preventing oxidized dNTP-incorporation in DNA. MTH1 is highly upregulated in tumor biopsies from patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and Burkitt lymphoma, hence confirming a rationale for targeting MTH1. Here, we tested the efficacy of karonudib in vitro and in preclinical B-cell lymphoma models. Using a range of B-cell lymphoma cell lines, karonudib strongly reduced viability at concentrations well tolerated by activated normal B cells. In B-cell lymphoma cells, karonudib increased incorporation of 8-oxo-dGTP into DNA, and prominently induced prometaphase arrest and apoptosis due to failure in spindle assembly. MTH1 knockout cell lines were less sensitive to karonudib-induced apoptosis, but were displaying cell cycle arrest phenotype similar to the wild type cells, indicating a dual inhibitory role of the drug. Karonudib was highly potent as single agent in two different lymphoma xenograft models, including an ABC DLBCL patient derived xenograft, leading to prolonged survival and fully controlled tumor growth. Together, our preclinical findings provide a rationale for further clinical testing of karonudib in B-cell lymphoma.

Targeting human MutT homolog 1 (MTH1) for cancer eradication: current progress and perspectives

Since accelerated metabolism produces much higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cancer cells compared to ROS levels found in normal cells, human MutT homolog 1 (MTH1), which sanitizes oxidized nucleotide pools, was recently demonstrated to be crucial for the survival of cancer cells, but not required for the proliferation of normal cells. Therefore, dozens of MTH1 inhibitors have been developed with the aim of suppressing cancer growth by accumulating oxidative damage in cancer cells. While several inhibitors were indeed confirmed to be effective, some inhibitors failed to kill cancer cells, complicating MTH1 as a viable target for cancer eradication. In this review, we summarize the current status of developing MTH1 inhibitors as drug candidates, classify the MTH1 inhibitors based on their structures, and offer our perspectives toward the therapeutic potential against cancer through the targeting of MTH1.

hMTH1 and GPX1 expression in human thyroid tissue is interrelated to prevent oxidative DNA damage

Oxidative stress (OS) is recognized as disturbance of cellular equilibrium between reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and their elimination by antioxidant defense systems. One example of ROS-mediated damage is generation of potentially mutagenic DNA precursor, 8-oxodGTP. In human cells genomic 8-oxodGTP incorporation is prevented by the MutT homologue 1 (MTH1 or hMTH1 for human MTH1) protein. It is well established that malignant cells, including thyroid cancer cells, require hMTH1 for maintaining proliferation and cancerous transformation phenotype. Above observations led to the development of hMTH1 inhibitors as novel anticancer therapeutics. In the current study we present extensive analysis of oxidative stress responses determining sensitivity to hMTH1 deficiency in cultured thyroid cells. We observe here that hMTH1 depletion results in downregulation of several glutathione-dependent OS defense system factors, including GPX1 and GCLM, making some of the tested thyroid cell lines highly dependent on glutathione levels. This is evidenced by the increased ROS burden and enhanced proliferation defect after combination of hMTH1 siRNA and glutathione synthesis inhibition. Moreover, due to the lack of data on hMTH1 expression in human thyroid tumor specimens we decided to perform detailed analysis of hMTH1 expression in thyroid tumor and peri-tumoral tissues from human patients. Our results allow us to propose here that anticancer activity of hMTH1 suppression may be boosted by combination with agents modulating glutathione pool, but further studies are necessary to precisely identify backgrounds susceptible to such combination treatment.

Genomic profiling of the transcription factor Zfp148 and its impact on the p53 pathway

Recent data suggest that the transcription factor Zfp148 represses activation of the tumor suppressor p53 in mice and that therapeutic targeting of the human orthologue ZNF148 could activate the p53 pathway without causing detrimental side effects. We have previously shown that Zfp148 deficiency promotes p53-dependent proliferation arrest of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), but the underlying mechanism is not clear. Here, we showed that Zfp148 deficiency downregulated cell cycle genes in MEFs in a p53-dependent manner. Proliferation arrest of Zfp148-deficient cells required increased expression of ARF, a potent activator of the p53 pathway. Chromatin immunoprecipitation showed that Zfp148 bound to the ARF promoter, suggesting that Zfp148 represses ARF transcription. However, Zfp148 preferentially bound to promoters of other transcription factors, indicating that deletion of Zfp148 may have pleiotropic effects that activate ARF and p53 indirectly. In line with this, we found no evidence of genetic interaction between TP53 and ZNF148 in CRISPR and siRNA screen data from hundreds of human cancer cell lines. We conclude that Zfp148 deficiency, by increasing ARF transcription, downregulates cell cycle genes and cell proliferation in a p53-dependent manner. However, the lack of genetic interaction between ZNF148 and TP53 in human cancer cells suggests that therapeutic targeting of ZNF148 may not increase p53 activity in humans.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors Affecting Microtubule Dynamics in Normal and Cancer Cells

Microtubules (MTs), highly dynamic structures composed of α- and β-tubulin heterodimers, are involved in cell movement and intracellular traffic and are essential for cell division. Within the cell, MTs are not uniform as they can be composed of different tubulin isotypes that are post-translationally modified and interact with different microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). These diverse intrinsic factors influence the dynamics of MTs. Extrinsic factors such as microtubule-targeting agents (MTAs) can also affect MT dynamics. MTAs can be divided into two main categories: microtubule-stabilizing agents (MSAs) and microtubule-destabilizing agents (MDAs). Thus, the MT skeleton is an important target for anticancer therapy. This review discusses factors that determine the microtubule dynamics in normal and cancer cells and describes microtubule-MTA interactions, highlighting the importance of tubulin isoform diversity and post-translational modifications in MTA responses and the consequences of such a phenomenon, including drug resistance development.

A high-throughput drug combination screen identifies an anti-glioma synergism between TH588 and PI3K inhibitors

Background

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and lethal type of primary brain tumor. More than half of GBMs contain mutation(s) of PTEN/PI3K/AKT, making inhibitors targeting the PI3K pathway very attractive for clinical investigation. However, so far, PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitors have not achieved satisfactory therapeutic effects in clinical trials of GBM. In this study, we aimed to develop a high-throughput screening method for high-throughput identification of potential targeted agents that synergize with PI3K inhibitors in GBM.

Methods

A Sensitivity Index (SI)-based drug combination screening method was established to evaluate the interactions between BKM120, a pan-PI3K inhibitor, and compounds from a library of 606 target-selective inhibitors. Proliferation, colony and 3D spheroid formation assays, western blotting, comet assay, γ-H2AX staining were used to evaluate the anti-glioma effects of the top-ranked candidates. The drug combination effects were analyzed by the Chou-Talalay method.

Results

Six compounds were successfully identified from the drug screen, including three previously reported compounds that cause synergistic antitumor effects with PI3K/mTOR inhibitors. TH588, an putative MTH1 inhibitor exhibited significant synergy with BKM120 in suppressing the proliferation, colony formation and 3D spheroid formation of GBM cells. Further investigation revealed that both DNA damage and apoptosis were markedly enhanced upon combination treatment with TH588 and BKM120. Finally, activation of PI3K or overexpression of AKT compromised the anti-glioma efficacy of TH588.

Conclusions

The screening method developed in this study demonstrated its usefulness in the rapid identification of synergistic drug combinations of PI3K inhibitors and targeted agents.

MTH1 Inhibitor TH588 Disturbs Mitotic Progression and Induces Mitosis-Dependent Accumulation of Genomic 8-oxodG

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) oxidize nucleotide triphosphate pools (e.g., 8-oxodGTP), which may kill cells if incorporated into DNA. Whether cancers avoid poisoning from oxidized nucleotides by preventing incorporation via the oxidized purine diphosphatase MTH1 remains under debate. Also, little is known about DNA polymerases incorporating oxidized nucleotides in cells or how oxidized nucleotides in DNA become toxic. Here we show that replacement of one of the main DNA replicases in human cells, DNA polymerase delta (Pol δ), with an error-prone variant allows increased 8-oxodG accumulation into DNA following treatment with TH588, a dual MTH1 inhibitor and microtubule targeting agent. The resulting elevated genomic 8-oxodG correlated with increased cytotoxicity of TH588. Interestingly, no substantial perturbation of replication fork progression was observed, but rather mitotic progression was impaired and mitotic DNA synthesis triggered. Reducing mitotic arrest by reversin treatment prevented accumulation of genomic 8-oxodG and reduced cytotoxicity of TH588, in line with the notion that mitotic arrest is required for ROS buildup and oxidation of the nucleotide pool. Furthermore, delayed mitosis and increased mitotic cell death was observed following TH588 treatment in cells expressing the error-prone but not wild-type Pol δ variant, which is not observed following treatments with antimitotic agents. Collectively, these results link accumulation of genomic oxidized nucleotides with disturbed mitotic progression. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings uncover a novel link between accumulation of genomic 8-oxodG and perturbed mitotic progression in cancer cells, which can be exploited therapeutically using MTH1 inhibitors.See related commentary by Alnajjar and Sweasy, p. 3459.