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Liu YF, Wilson C, Bedny M. Contribution of the language network to the comprehension of Python programming code. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2024; 251:105392. [PMID: 38387220 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2024.105392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Does the perisylvian language network contribute to comprehension of programming languages, like Python? Univariate neuroimaging studies find high responses to code in fronto-parietal executive areas but not in fronto-temporal language areas, suggesting the language network does little. We used multivariate-pattern-analysis to test whether the language network encodes Python functions. Python programmers read functions while undergoing fMRI. A linear SVM decoded for-loops from if-conditionals based on activity in lateral temporal (LT) language cortex. In searchlight analysis, decoding accuracy was higher in LT language cortex than anywhere else. Follow up analysis showed that decoding was not driven by presence of different words across functions, "for" vs "if," but by compositional program properties. Finally, univariate responses to code peaked earlier in LT language-cortex than in the fronto-parietal network. We propose that the language system forms initial "surface meaning" representations of programs, which input to the reasoning network for processing of algorithms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Fei Liu
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins Universtiy, 232 Ames Hall, 3400 N. Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA.
| | - Colin Wilson
- Department of Cognitive Science, Johns Hopkins University, 237 Krieger Hall, 3400 N. Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Marina Bedny
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins Universtiy, 232 Ames Hall, 3400 N. Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
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2
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Kuo CH, Prat CS. Computer programmers show distinct, expertise-dependent brain responses to violations in form and meaning when reading code. Sci Rep 2024; 14:5404. [PMID: 38443678 PMCID: PMC10914777 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-56090-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
As computer programming becomes more central to the workforce, the need for better models of how it is effectively learned has become more apparent. The current study addressed this gap by recording electrophysiological brain responses as 62 Python programmers with varying skill levels read lines of code with manipulations of form (syntax) and meaning (semantics). At the group level, results showed that manipulations of form resulted in P600 effects, with syntactically invalid code generating more positive deflections in the 500-800 ms range than syntactically valid code. Meaning manipulations resulted in N400 effects, with semantically implausible code generating more negative deflections in the 300-500 ms range than semantically plausible code. Greater Python expertise within the group was associated with greater sensitivity to violations in form. These results support the notion that skilled programming, like skilled natural language learning, is associated with the incorporation of rule-based knowledge into online comprehension processes. Conversely, programmers at all skill levels showed neural sensitivity to meaning manipulations, suggesting that reliance on pre-existing semantic relationships facilitates code comprehension across skill levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chu-Hsuan Kuo
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Chantel S Prat
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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3
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Prat CS, Gallée J, Yamasaki BL. Getting language right: Relating individual differences in right hemisphere contributions to language learning and relearning. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2023; 239:105242. [PMID: 36931111 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2023.105242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Language, or the diverse set of dynamic processes through which symbolic, perceptual codes are linked to meaning representations in memory, has long been assumed to be lateralized to the left hemisphere (LH). However, after over 150 years of investigation, we still lack a unifying account of when, and for whom, a particular linguistic process relies upon LH or right hemisphere (RH) computations, or both. With a focus on individual differences, this article integrates existing theories of hemispheric contributions to language and cognition into a novel proposed framework for understanding how, when, and for whom the RH contributes to linguistic processes. We use evidence from first and second language learning and language relearning following focal brain damage to highlight the critical contributions of the RH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantel S Prat
- Department of Psychology, Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Jeanne Gallée
- Department of Psychology, Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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4
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Calvo N, Grundy JG, Bialystok E. Bilingualism modulates neural efficiency at rest through alpha reactivity. Neuropsychologia 2023; 180:108486. [PMID: 36657519 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2023.108486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate how resting state EEG rhythms reflect attentional processes and bilingual experience. We compared alpha and beta rhythms for monolingual and bilingual young adults in eyes open and eyes closed conditions using EEG measures of frequency power, reactivity, and coherence. Power shows the amount of brain activity at a given frequency band; reactivity indexes the desynchronization of neuronal activity when individuals open their eyes at rest; and coherence indicates the brain regions that have correlated activity. The results showed that bilinguals had similar alpha power as monolinguals in both resting conditions but less alpha reactivity across the whole scalp. There was also more focused activation for bilinguals expressed as more coherence in posterior electrodes, particularly when eyes were opened to direct attention. For beta, there were no group differences in power or reactivity, but there was higher coherence for monolinguals than bilinguals, a pattern consistent with previous literature showing that beta frequency was related to language learning and native language proficiency. These results are in line with a neural efficiency theory and suggest that bilinguals have a more efficient brain for attentional mechanisms than monolinguals at rest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Calvo
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - John G Grundy
- Department of Psychology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Ellen Bialystok
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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Castelhano J, Duarte IC, Couceiro R, Medeiros J, Duraes J, Afonso S, Madeira H, Castelo-Branco M. Software Bug Detection Causes a Shift From Bottom-Up to Top-Down Effective Connectivity Involving the Insula Within the Error-Monitoring Network. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:788272. [PMID: 35321263 PMCID: PMC8935015 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.788272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural correlates of software programming skills have been the target of an increasing number of studies in the past few years. Those studies focused on error-monitoring during software code inspection. Others have studied task-related cognitive load as measured by distinct neurophysiological measures. Most studies addressed only syntax errors (shallow level of code monitoring). However, a recent functional MRI (fMRI) study suggested a pivotal role of the insula during error-monitoring when challenging deep-level analysis of code inspection was required. This raised the hypothesis that the insula is causally involved in deep error-monitoring. To confirm this hypothesis, we carried out a new fMRI study where participants performed a deep source-code comprehension task that included error-monitoring to detect bugs in the code. The generality of our paradigm was enhanced by comparison with a variety of tasks related to text reading and bugless source-code understanding. Healthy adult programmers (N = 21) participated in this 3T fMRI experiment. The activation maps evoked by error-related events confirmed significant activations in the insula [p(Bonferroni) < 0.05]. Importantly, a posterior-to-anterior causality shift was observed concerning the role of the insula: in the absence of error, causal directions were mainly bottom-up, whereas, in their presence, the strong causal top-down effects from frontal regions, in particular, the anterior cingulate cortex was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joao Castelhano
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research (CIBIT)/ICNAS, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Isabel C. Duarte
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research (CIBIT)/ICNAS, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Couceiro
- CISUC-Centre for Informatics and Systems, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Julio Medeiros
- CISUC-Centre for Informatics and Systems, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Joao Duraes
- CISUC-Centre for Informatics and Systems, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Coimbra Polytechnic—ISEC, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sónia Afonso
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research (CIBIT)/ICNAS, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Henrique Madeira
- CISUC-Centre for Informatics and Systems, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Miguel Castelo-Branco
- Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research (CIBIT)/ICNAS, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- *Correspondence: Miguel Castelo-Branco,
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6
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Global and localized network characteristics of the resting brain predict and adapt to foreign language learning in older adults. Sci Rep 2022; 12:3633. [PMID: 35256672 PMCID: PMC8901791 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-07629-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Resting brain (rs) activity has been shown to be a reliable predictor of the level of foreign language (L2) proficiency younger adults can achieve in a given time-period. Since rs properties change over the lifespan, we investigated whether L2 attainment in older adults (aged 64–74 years) is also predicted by individual differences in rs activity, and to what extent rs activity itself changes as a function of L2 proficiency. To assess how neuronal assemblies communicate at specific frequencies to facilitate L2 development, we examined localized and global measures (Minimum Spanning Trees) of connectivity. Results showed that central organization within the beta band (~ 13–29.5 Hz) predicted measures of L2 complexity, fluency and accuracy, with the latter additionally predicted by a left-lateralized centro-parietal beta network. In contrast, reduced connectivity in a right-lateralized alpha (~ 7.5–12.5 Hz) network predicted development of L2 complexity. As accuracy improved, so did central organization in beta, whereas fluency improvements were reflected in localized changes within an interhemispheric beta network. Our findings highlight the importance of global and localized network efficiency and the role of beta oscillations for L2 learning and suggest plasticity even in the ageing brain. We interpret the findings against the background of networks identified in socio-cognitive processes.
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Mangalam M, Fragaszy DM, Wagman JB, Day BM, Kelty-Stephen DG, Bongers RM, Stout DW, Osiurak F. On the psychological origins of tool use. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 134:104521. [PMID: 34998834 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The ubiquity of tool use in human life has generated multiple lines of scientific and philosophical investigation to understand the development and expression of humans' engagement with tools and its relation to other dimensions of human experience. However, existing literature on tool use faces several epistemological challenges in which the same set of questions generate many different answers. At least four critical questions can be identified, which are intimately intertwined-(1) What constitutes tool use? (2) What psychological processes underlie tool use in humans and nonhuman animals? (3) Which of these psychological processes are exclusive to tool use? (4) Which psychological processes involved in tool use are exclusive to Homo sapiens? To help advance a multidisciplinary scientific understanding of tool use, six author groups representing different academic disciplines (e.g., anthropology, psychology, neuroscience) and different theoretical perspectives respond to each of these questions, and then point to the direction of future work on tool use. We find that while there are marked differences among the responses of the respective author groups to each question, there is a surprising degree of agreement about many essential concepts and questions. We believe that this interdisciplinary and intertheoretical discussion will foster a more comprehensive understanding of tool use than any one of these perspectives (or any one of these author groups) would (or could) on their own.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhur Mangalam
- Department of Physical Therapy, Movement and Rehabilitation Science, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
| | | | - Jeffrey B Wagman
- Department of Psychology, Illinois State University, Normal, IL 61761, USA
| | - Brian M Day
- Department of Psychology, Butler University, Indianapolis, IN 46208, USA
| | | | - Raoul M Bongers
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 GZ Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Dietrich W Stout
- Department of Anthropology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - François Osiurak
- Laboratoire d'Etude des Mécanismes Cognitifs, Université de Lyon, Lyon 69361, France; Institut Universitaire de France, Paris 75231, France
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8
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Kliesch M, Giroud N, Meyer M. EEG Resting-State and Event-Related Potentials as Markers of Learning Success in Older Adults Following Second Language Training: A Pilot Study. Brain Plast 2021; 7:143-162. [PMID: 34868879 PMCID: PMC8609485 DOI: 10.3233/bpl-200117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In this pilot study, we evaluated the use of electrophysiological measures at rest as paradigm-independent predictors of second language (L2) development for the first time in older adult learners. We then assessed EEG correlates of the learning outcome in a language-switching paradigm after the training, which to date has only been done in younger adults and at intermediate to advanced L2 proficiency. METHODS Ten (Swiss) German-speaking adults between 65-74 years of age participated in an intensive 3-week English training for beginners. A resting-state EEG was recorded before the training to predict the ensuing L2 development (Experiment 1). A language-switching ERP experiment was conducted after the training to assess the learning outcome (Experiment 2). RESULTS All participants improved their L2 skills but differed noticeably in their individual development. Experiment 1 showed that beta1 oscillations at rest (13-14.5 Hz) predicted these individual differences. We interpret resting-state beta1 oscillations as correlates of attentional capacities and semantic working memory that facilitate the extraction and processing of novel forms and meanings from the L2 input.In Experiment 2, we found that language switching from the L2 into the native language (L1) elicited an N400 component, which was reduced in the more advanced learners. Thus, for learners beginning the acquisition of an L2 in third age, language switching appears to become less effortful with increasing proficiency, suggesting that the lexicons of the L1 and L2 become more closely linked. CONCLUSIONS In sum, our findings extend the available evidence of neurological processes in L2 learning from younger to older adults, suggesting that electrophysiological mechanisms are similar across the lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Kliesch
- Division of Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Zurich Center for Linguistics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Romance Linguistics, Institute of Romance Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Giroud
- Division of Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Phonetics and Speech Sciences, Institute of Computational Linguistics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Neuroscience Center Zurich (ZNZ), University of Zurich & ETHZ, Zurich, Switzerland
- University Research Priority Program “Dynamics of Healthy Aging”, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin Meyer
- Division of Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Cognitive Psychology Unit, Psychology Institute, Alpen-Adria University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt am Woerthersee, Austria
- Neuroscience Center Zurich (ZNZ), University of Zurich & ETHZ, Zurich, Switzerland
- University Research Priority Program “Dynamics of Healthy Aging”, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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9
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McDonald AR, Roberts R, Koeppe JR, Hall BL. Undergraduate structural biology education: A shift from users to developers of computation and simulation tools. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2021; 72:39-45. [PMID: 34461592 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2021.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The use of theory and simulation in undergraduate education in biochemistry, molecular biology, and structural biology is now common, but the skills students need and the curriculum instructors have to train their students are evolving. The global pandemic and the immediate switch to remote instruction forced instructors to reconsider how they can use computation to teach concepts previously approached with other instructional methods. In this review, we survey some of the curricula, materials, and resources for instructors who want to include theory, simulation, and computation in the undergraduate curriculum. There has been a notable progression from teaching students to use discipline-specific computational tools to developing interactive computational tools that promote active learning to having students write code themselves, such that they view computation as another tool for solving problems. We are moving toward a future where computational skills, including programming, data analysis, visualization, and simulation, will no longer be considered an optional bonus for students but a required skill for the 21st century STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) workforce; therefore, all physical and life science students should learn to program in the undergraduate curriculum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Ringer McDonald
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93401, USA.
| | - Rebecca Roberts
- Department of Biology, Ursinus College, Collegeville, PA 19426, USA
| | - Julia R Koeppe
- Department of Chemistry, SUNY at Oswego, Oswego, NY 13126, USA
| | - Bonnie L Hall
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Grand View University, Des Moines, IA 50316, USA
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10
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Reading and Calculation Neural Systems and Their Weighted Adaptive Use for Programming Skills. Neural Plast 2021; 2021:5596145. [PMID: 34394339 PMCID: PMC8360733 DOI: 10.1155/2021/5596145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Software programming is a modern activity that poses strong challenges to the human brain. The neural mechanisms that support this novel cognitive faculty are still unknown. On the other hand, reading and calculation abilities represent slightly less recent human activities, in which neural correlates are relatively well understood. We hypothesize that calculus and reading brain networks provide joint underpinnings with distinctly weighted contributions which concern programming tasks, in particular concerning error identification. Based on a meta-analysis of the core regions involved in both reading and math and recent experimental evidence on the neural basis of programming tasks, we provide a theoretical account that integrates the role of these networks in program understanding. In this connectivity-based framework, error-monitoring processing regions in the frontal cortex influence the insula, which is a pivotal hub within the salience network, leading into efficient causal modulation of parietal networks involved in reading and mathematical operations. The core role of the anterior insula and anterior midcingulate cortex is illuminated by their relation to performance in error processing and novelty. The larger similarity that we observed between the networks underlying calculus and programming skills does not exclude a more limited but clear overlap with the reading network, albeit with differences in hemispheric lateralization when compared with prose reading. Future work should further elucidate whether other features of computer program understanding also use distinct weights of phylogenetically “older systems” for this recent human activity, based on the adjusting influence of fronto-insular networks. By unraveling the neural correlates of program understanding and bug detection, this work provides a framework to understand error monitoring in this novel complex faculty.
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Stout D. The Cognitive Science of Technology. Trends Cogn Sci 2021; 25:964-977. [PMID: 34362661 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2021.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Technology is central to human life but hard to define and study. This review synthesizes advances in fields from anthropology to evolutionary biology and neuroscience to propose an interdisciplinary cognitive science of technology. The foundation of this effort is an evolutionarily motivated definition of technology that highlights three key features: material production, social collaboration, and cultural reproduction. This broad scope respects the complexity of the subject but poses a challenge for theoretical unification. Addressing this challenge requires a comparative approach to reduce the diversity of real-world technological cognition to a smaller number of recurring processes and relationships. To this end, a synthetic perceptual-motor hypothesis (PMH) for the evolutionary-developmental-cultural construction of technological cognition is advanced as an initial target for investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dietrich Stout
- Department of Anthropology, Emory University, 1557 Dickey Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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12
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Morais J. The phoneme: A conceptual heritage from alphabetic literacy. Cognition 2021; 213:104740. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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13
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Morais J, Kolinsky R. Seeing thought in the future: literate forecasting and forecasting literacy. JOURNAL OF CULTURAL COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s41809-021-00085-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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14
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Liu YF, Kim J, Wilson C, Bedny M. Computer code comprehension shares neural resources with formal logical inference in the fronto-parietal network. eLife 2020; 9:e59340. [PMID: 33319745 PMCID: PMC7738180 DOI: 10.7554/elife.59340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the importance of programming to modern society, the cognitive and neural bases of code comprehension are largely unknown. Programming languages might 'recycle' neurocognitive mechanisms originally developed for natural languages. Alternatively, comprehension of code could depend on fronto-parietal networks shared with other culturally-invented symbol systems, such as formal logic and symbolic math such as algebra. Expert programmers (average 11 years of programming experience) performed code comprehension and memory control tasks while undergoing fMRI. The same participants also performed formal logic, symbolic math, executive control, and language localizer tasks. A left-lateralized fronto-parietal network was recruited for code comprehension. Patterns of activity within this network distinguish between 'for' loops and 'if' conditional code functions. In terms of the underlying neural basis, code comprehension overlapped extensively with formal logic and to a lesser degree math. Overlap with executive processes and language was low, but laterality of language and code covaried across individuals. Cultural symbol systems, including code, depend on a distinctive fronto-parietal cortical network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Fei Liu
- Johns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Judy Kim
- Johns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreUnited States
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15
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Ivanova AA, Srikant S, Sueoka Y, Kean HH, Dhamala R, O'Reilly UM, Bers MU, Fedorenko E. Comprehension of computer code relies primarily on domain-general executive brain regions. eLife 2020; 9:e58906. [PMID: 33319744 PMCID: PMC7738192 DOI: 10.7554/elife.58906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Computer programming is a novel cognitive tool that has transformed modern society. What cognitive and neural mechanisms support this skill? Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate two candidate brain systems: the multiple demand (MD) system, typically recruited during math, logic, problem solving, and executive tasks, and the language system, typically recruited during linguistic processing. We examined MD and language system responses to code written in Python, a text-based programming language (Experiment 1) and in ScratchJr, a graphical programming language (Experiment 2); for both, we contrasted responses to code problems with responses to content-matched sentence problems. We found that the MD system exhibited strong bilateral responses to code in both experiments, whereas the language system responded strongly to sentence problems, but weakly or not at all to code problems. Thus, the MD system supports the use of novel cognitive tools even when the input is structurally similar to natural language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna A Ivanova
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Shashank Srikant
- Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Yotaro Sueoka
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Hope H Kean
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Riva Dhamala
- Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Study and Human Development, Tufts UniversityMedfordUnited States
| | - Una-May O'Reilly
- Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Marina U Bers
- Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Study and Human Development, Tufts UniversityMedfordUnited States
| | - Evelina Fedorenko
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
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17
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Helmlinger B, Sommer M, Feldhammer-Kahr M, Wood G, Arendasy ME, Kober SE. Programming experience associated with neural efficiency during figural reasoning. Sci Rep 2020; 10:13351. [PMID: 32770065 PMCID: PMC7415147 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70360-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, we investigated neural processes underlying programming experience. Individuals with high programming experience might develop a form of computational thinking, which they can apply on complex problem-solving tasks such as reasoning tests. Therefore, N = 20 healthy young participants with previous programming experience and N = 21 participants without any programming experience performed three reasoning tests: Figural Inductive Reasoning (FIR), Numerical Inductive Reasoning (NIR), Verbal Deductive Reasoning (VDR). Using multi-channel EEG measurements, task-related changes in alpha and theta power as well as brain connectivity were investigated. Group differences were only observed in the FIR task. Programmers showed an improved performance in the FIR task as compared to non-programmers. Additionally, programmers exhibited a more efficient neural processing when solving FIR tasks, as indicated by lower brain activation and brain connectivity especially in easy tasks. Hence, behavioral and neural measures differed between groups only in tasks that are similar to mental processes required during programming, such as pattern recognition and algorithmic thinking by applying complex rules (FIR), rather than in tasks that require more the application of mathematical operations (NIR) or verbal tasks (VDR). Our results provide new evidence for neural efficiency in individuals with higher programming experience in problem-solving tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Helmlinger
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Markus Sommer
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Guilherme Wood
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Martin E Arendasy
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Silvia E Kober
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010, Graz, Austria.
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria.
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Bice K, Yamasaki BL, Prat CS. Bilingual Language Experience Shapes Resting-State Brain Rhythms. NEUROBIOLOGY OF LANGUAGE (CAMBRIDGE, MASS.) 2020; 1:288-318. [PMID: 37215228 PMCID: PMC10158654 DOI: 10.1162/nol_a_00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
An increasing body of research has investigated how bilingual language experience changes brain structure and function, including changes to task-free, or "resting-state" brain connectivity. Such findings provide important evidence about how the brain continues to be shaped by different language experiences throughout the lifespan. The neural effects of bilingual language experience can provide evidence about the additional processing demands placed on the linguistic and/or executive systems by dual-language use. While considerable research has used MRI to examine where these changes occur, such methods cannot reveal the temporal dynamics of functioning brain networks at rest. The current study used data from task-free EEGS to disentangle how the linguistic and cognitive demands of bilingual language use impact brain functioning. Data analyzed from 106 bilinguals and 91 monolinguals revealed that bilinguals had greater alpha power, and significantly greater and broader coherence in the alpha and beta frequency ranges than monolinguals. Follow-up analyses showed that higher alpha was related to language control: more second-language use, higher native-language proficiency, and earlier age of second-language acquisition. Bilateral beta power was related to native-language proficiency, whereas theta was related to native-language proficiency only in left-hemisphere electrodes. The results contribute to our understanding of how the linguistic and cognitive requirements of dual-language use shape intrinsic brain activity, and what the broader implications for information processing may be.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brianna L. Yamasaki
- Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences and Department of Psychology, University of Washington
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University
| | - Chantel S. Prat
- Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences and Department of Psychology, University of Washington
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