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Mustafa N, Jumaah F, Ludin N, Akhtaruzzaman M, Hassan N, Ahmad A, Chan K, Su'ait M. Tetraalkylammonium salts (TAS) in solar energy applications - A review on in vitro and in vivo toxicity. Heliyon 2024; 10:e27381. [PMID: 38560257 PMCID: PMC10979238 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Tetraalkylammonium salt (TAS) is an organic salt widely employed as a precursor, additive or electrolyte in solar cell applications, such as perovskite or dye-sensitized solar cells. Notably, Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have garnered acclaim for their exceptional efficiency. However, PSCs have been associated with environmental and health concerns due to the presence of lead (Pb) content, the use of hazardous solvents, and the incorporation of TAS in their fabrication processes, which significantly contributes to environmental and human health toxicity. As a response, there is a growing trend towards transitioning to safer and biobased materials in PSC fabrication to address these concerns. However, the potential health hazards associated with TAS necessitate a thorough evaluation, considering the widespread use of this substance. Nevertheless, the overexploitation of TAS could potentially increase the disposal of TAS in the ecosystem, thus, posing a major health risk and severe pollution. Therefore, this review article presents a comprehensive discussion on the in vitro and in vivo toxicity assays of TAS as a potential material in solar energy applications, including cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, in vivo dermal, and systemic toxicity. In addition, this review emphasizes the toxicity of TAS compounds, particularly the linear tetraalkyl chain structures, and summarizes essential findings from past studies as a point of reference for the development of non-toxic and environmentally friendly TAS derivatives in future studies. The effects of the TAS alkyl chain length, polar head and hydrophobicity, cation and anion, and other properties are also included in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- N.M. Mustafa
- Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - F.N. Jumaah
- Department of Materials & Life Sciences, Sophia University, 7-1 Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-8554, Japan
| | - N.A. Ludin
- Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - M. Akhtaruzzaman
- Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Islamic University of Madinah, Madinah, Saudi Arabia
| | - N.H. Hassan
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
- Battery Technology Research Group (UKMBATT), Polymer Research Centre (PORCE), Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - A. Ahmad
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
- Battery Technology Research Group (UKMBATT), Polymer Research Centre (PORCE), Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Airlangga, JI. Mulyorejo, Surabaya, 60115, Indonesia
| | - K.M. Chan
- Product Stewardship and Toxicology, Group Health, Safety and Environment (GHSE), Petroliam Nasional Berhad (PETRONAS), 50088 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - M.S. Su'ait
- Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
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2
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Kula N, Lamch Ł, Futoma-Kołoch B, Wilk KA, Obłąk E. The effectiveness of newly synthesized quaternary ammonium salts differing in chain length and type of counterion against priority human pathogens. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21799. [PMID: 36526659 PMCID: PMC9757636 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24760-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium salts (QAS) commonly occur as active substances in disinfectants. QAS have the important property of coating abiotic surfaces, which prevents adhesion of microorganisms, thus inhibiting biofilm formation. In this study, a group of nine monomeric QAS, differing in the structure and length of the aliphatic chain (C12, C14, C16) and the counterion (methylcarbonate, acetate, bromide), were investigated. The study included an analysis of their action against planktonic forms as well as bacterial biofilms. The compounds were tested for their anti-adhesion properties on stainless steel, polystyrene, silicone and glass surfaces. Moreover, mutagenicity analysis and evaluation of hemolytic properties were performed. It was found that compounds with 16-carbon hydrophobic chains were the most promising against both planktonic forms and biofilms. Tested surfactants (C12, C14, C16) showed anti-adhesion activity but it was dependent on the type of the surface and strain used. The tested compounds at MIC concentrations did not cause hemolysis of sheep blood cells. The type of counterion was not as significant for the activity of the compound as the length of the hydrophobic aliphatic chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Kula
- grid.8505.80000 0001 1010 5103Department of Physico-Chemistry of Microorganisms, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wrocław, Przybyszewskiego 63/77, 51-148 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Łukasz Lamch
- grid.7005.20000 0000 9805 3178Department of Engineering and Technology of Chemical Processes, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Bożena Futoma-Kołoch
- grid.8505.80000 0001 1010 5103Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wrocław, Przybyszewskiego 63/77, 51-148 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Kazimiera A. Wilk
- grid.7005.20000 0000 9805 3178Department of Engineering and Technology of Chemical Processes, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Ewa Obłąk
- grid.8505.80000 0001 1010 5103Department of Physico-Chemistry of Microorganisms, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wrocław, Przybyszewskiego 63/77, 51-148 Wrocław, Poland
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Chuprom J, Sangkanu S, Mitsuwan W, Boonhok R, Mahabusarakam W, Singh LR, Dumkliang E, Jitrangsri K, Paul AK, Surinkaew S, Wilairatana P, Pereira MDL, Rahmatullah M, Wiart C, Oliveira SMR, Nissapatorn V. Anti- Acanthamoeba activity of a semi-synthetic mangostin derivative and its ability in removal of Acanthamoeba triangularis WU19001 on contact lens. PeerJ 2022; 10:e14468. [PMID: 36523474 PMCID: PMC9745913 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Garcinia mangostana L., also known as the mangosteen tree, is a native medicinal plant in Southeast Asia having a wide variety of pharmacologically active compounds, including xanthonoid mangostin. In this study, we examined the pharmacological activities of the selected semi-synthetic mangostin derivative, namely, amoebicidal activity, encystation inhibition, excystation activity, and removal capacity of adhesive Acanthamoeba from the surface of contact lens (CL). Among the three derivatives, C1 exhibited promising anti-Acanthamoeba activity against Acanthamoeba triangularis WU19001 trophozoites and cysts. SEM images displayed morphological changes in Acanthamoeba trophozoites, including the loss of acanthopodia, pore formation in the cell membrane, and membrane damage. In addition, the treated cyst was shrunken and adopted an irregular flat cyst shape. Under a fluorescence microscope, acridine orange and propidium iodide (AO/PI) staining revealed C1 induced condensation of cytoplasm and chromatin with the loss of cell volume in the treated trophozoites, while calcofluor white staining demonstrated the leakage of cell wall in treated cysts, leading to cell death. Interestingly, at the concentration ranges in which C1 showed the anti-Acanthamoeba effects (IC50 values ranging from 0.035-0.056 mg/mL), they were not toxic to Vero cells. C1 displayed the highest inhibitory effect on A. triangularis encystation at 1/16×MIC value (0.004 mg/mL). While C1 demonstrated the excystation activity at 1/128×MIC value with a high rate of 89.47%. Furthermore, C1 exhibited the removal capacity of adhesive Acanthamoeba from the surface of CL comparable with commercial multipurpose solutions (MPSs). Based on the results obtained, C1 may be a promising lead agent to develop a therapeutic for the treatment of Acanthamoeba infections and disinfectant solutions for CL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julalak Chuprom
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Southeast Asia Water Team (SEA Water Team) and World Union for Herbal Drug Discovery (WUHeDD), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand,School of Languages and General Education (SOLGEN), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Suthinee Sangkanu
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Southeast Asia Water Team (SEA Water Team) and World Union for Herbal Drug Discovery (WUHeDD), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Watcharapong Mitsuwan
- Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Rachasak Boonhok
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products (RECIHP), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Wilawan Mahabusarakam
- Division of Physical Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand
| | - L. Ravithej Singh
- Fluoro-Agrochemicals Division, CSIR–Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Tarnaka, Hyderabad, India,Chemical Sciences Division, Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, India
| | - Ekachai Dumkliang
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Pharmaceutical Development of Green Innovations Group (PDGIG), Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | - Kritamorn Jitrangsri
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | - Alok K. Paul
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Sirirat Surinkaew
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Polrat Wilairatana
- Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Maria de Lourdes Pereira
- CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials & Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal,Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Mohammed Rahmatullah
- Department of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, University of Development Alternative, Lalmatia, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Christophe Wiart
- The Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, University Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kin-abalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Sonia Marlene Rodrigues Oliveira
- CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials & Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal,Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton, Australia
| | - Veeranoot Nissapatorn
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Southeast Asia Water Team (SEA Water Team) and World Union for Herbal Drug Discovery (WUHeDD), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
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López-Barona P, Verdú-Expósito C, Martín-Pérez T, Gómez-Casanova N, Lozano-Cruz T, Ortega P, Gómez R, Pérez-Serrano J, Heredero-Bermejo I. Amoebicidal activity of cationic carbosilane dendrons derived with 4-phenylbutyric acid against Acanthamoeba griffini and Acanthamoeba polyphaga trophozoites and cysts. Sci Rep 2022; 12:14926. [PMID: 36056060 PMCID: PMC9440212 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-19200-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Amoebae from the genus Acanthamoeba are important pathogens responsible for severe illnesses in humans such as Acanthamoeba keratitis and granulomatous amoebic encephalitis. In the last few decades, AK diagnoses have steadily increased. Most patients suffering from AK were contact lens users and the infection was related to poor hygiene. However, therapy is not yet well established, and treatments may last for several months due to resistance. Moreover, these treatments have been described to generate cytotoxicity. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop new therapeutic strategies against AK. In this study, the amoebicidal activity of different generation cationic carbosilane dendrons derived with 4-phenylbutyric acid was demonstrated against Acanthamoeba polyphaga and Acanthamoeba griffini trophozoites and cysts. In addition, the combination of chlorhexidine digluconate and the most effective dendron (ArCO2G2(SNMe3I)4) showed an in vitro effect against Acanthamoeba trophozoites and cysts, reducing the minimal trophozoite amoebicidal concentration as well as concentrations with cysticidal activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- P López-Barona
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Alcalá, 28871, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - C Verdú-Expósito
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Alcalá, 28871, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - T Martín-Pérez
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Alcalá, 28871, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - N Gómez-Casanova
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Alcalá, 28871, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - T Lozano-Cruz
- Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Andrés M. del Río Chemistry Research Institute (IQAR), Ramón y Cajal Health Research Institute (IRYCIS), Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine Networking Research Center (CIBER-BBN), University of Alcalá, 28871, Madrid, Spain
| | - P Ortega
- Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Andrés M. del Río Chemistry Research Institute (IQAR), Ramón y Cajal Health Research Institute (IRYCIS), Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine Networking Research Center (CIBER-BBN), University of Alcalá, 28871, Madrid, Spain
| | - R Gómez
- Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Andrés M. del Río Chemistry Research Institute (IQAR), Ramón y Cajal Health Research Institute (IRYCIS), Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine Networking Research Center (CIBER-BBN), University of Alcalá, 28871, Madrid, Spain
| | - J Pérez-Serrano
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Alcalá, 28871, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - I Heredero-Bermejo
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Alcalá, 28871, Alcalá de Henares, Spain.
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5
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Siddiqui R, Abouleish MY, Khamis M, Ibrahim T, Khan NA. Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis: Potential Application of Ionic Liquids Against Brain-Eating Amoebae? Acta Parasitol 2022; 67:1032-1034. [PMID: 35294972 DOI: 10.1007/s11686-022-00532-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Naegleria fowleri, a well-known brain-eating amoeba, induces high mortality with no available effective treatment. Ionic liquids are compounds that contain a variety of cations and anions that can be tailored to specific applications. Based on the biological, chemical and physical properties of these ionic liquids, this work proposes the use of ionic liquids as novel anti-Naegleria fowleri biocides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | | | - Mustafa Khamis
- College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Taleb Ibrahim
- College of Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, University City, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
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6
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Ahmed U, Anwar A, Ong SK, Anwar A, Khan NA. Applications of medicinal chemistry for drug discovery against Acanthamoeba infections. Med Res Rev 2021; 42:462-512. [PMID: 34472107 DOI: 10.1002/med.21851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Acanthamoeba is a genus of free-living amoebae, pervasively found in the environment. Most of its pathogenic species are the causative agent of sight-threatening Acanthamoeba keratitis and fatal granulomatous amoebic encephalitis. Despite the advancements in the field of chemotherapy, treating Acanthamoeba infections is still challenging due to incomplete knowledge of the complicated pathophysiology. In case of infection, the treatment regimen for the patients is often ineffective due to delayed diagnosis, poor specificity, and side-effects. Besides the resistance of Acanthamoeba cysts to most of the drugs, the recurrence of infection further complicates the recovery. Thus, it is necessary to develop an effective treatment which can eradicate these rare, but serious infections. Based on various computational and in vitro studies, it has been established that the synthetic scaffolds such as heterocyclic compounds may act as potential drug leads for the development of antiamoebic drugs. In this review, we report different classes of synthetic compounds especially heterocyclic compounds which have shown promising results against Acanthamoeba. Moreover, the antiamoebic activities of synthetic compounds with their possible mode of actions against Acanthamoeba, have been summarized and discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Usman Ahmed
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ayaz Anwar
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Seng-Kai Ong
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medical and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Areeba Anwar
- Faculty of Defence Science and Technology, National Defence University of Malaysia, Kuala Lampur, Malaysia
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE
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Henriquez FL, Mooney R, Bandel T, Giammarini E, Zeroual M, Fiori PL, Margarita V, Rappelli P, Dessì D. Paradigms of Protist/Bacteria Symbioses Affecting Human Health: Acanthamoeba species and Trichomonas vaginalis. Front Microbiol 2021; 11:616213. [PMID: 33488560 PMCID: PMC7817646 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.616213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Ever since the publication of the seminal paper by Lynn Margulis in 1967 proposing the theory of the endosymbiotic origin of organelles, the study of the symbiotic relationships between unicellular eukaryotes and prokaryotes has received ever-growing attention by microbiologists and evolutionists alike. While the evolutionary significance of the endosymbiotic associations within protists has emerged and is intensively studied, the impact of these relationships on human health has been seldom taken into account. Microbial endosymbioses involving human eukaryotic pathogens are not common, and the sexually transmitted obligate parasite Trichomonas vaginalis and the free-living opportunistic pathogen Acanthamoeba represent two unique cases in this regard, to date. The reasons of this peculiarity for T. vaginalis and Acanthamoeba may be due to their lifestyles, characterized by bacteria-rich environments. However, this characteristic does not fully explain the reason why no bacterial endosymbiont has yet been detected in unicellular eukaryotic human pathogens other than in T. vaginalis and Acanthamoeba, albeit sparse and poorly investigated examples of morphological identification of bacteria-like microorganisms associated with Giardia and Entamoeba were reported in the past. In this review article we will present the body of experimental evidences revealing the profound effects of these examples of protist/bacteria symbiosis on the pathogenesis of the microbial species involved, and ultimately their impact on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona L Henriquez
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of West Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom
| | - Ronnie Mooney
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of West Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy Bandel
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of West Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom
| | - Elisa Giammarini
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of West Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom
| | - Mohammed Zeroual
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of West Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom.,Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Pier Luigi Fiori
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy.,Mediterrenean Center for Disease Control, Sassari, Italy
| | - Valentina Margarita
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Paola Rappelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy.,Mediterrenean Center for Disease Control, Sassari, Italy
| | - Daniele Dessì
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy.,Mediterrenean Center for Disease Control, Sassari, Italy
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Ahmed H, Carter KC, Williams RA. Structure and Antiparasitic Activity Relationship of Alkylphosphocholine Analogues against Leishmania donovani. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8081117. [PMID: 32722326 PMCID: PMC7463460 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8081117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Miltefosine (Milt) is the only oral treatment for visceral leishmaniasis (VL) but its use is associated with adverse effects, e.g., teratogenicity, vomiting, diarrhoea. Understanding how its chemical structure induces cytotoxicity, whilst not compromising its anti-parasitic efficacy, could identify more effective compounds. Therefore, we systemically modified the compound’s head, tail and linker tested the in vitro activity of three alkylphosphocholines (APC) series against Leishmania donovani strains with different sensitivities to antimony. The analogue, APC12, with an alkyl carbon chain of 12 atoms, was also tested for anti-leishmanial in vivo activity in a murine VL model. All APCs produced had anti-leishmanial activity in the micromolar range (IC50 and IC90, 0.46– > 82.21 µM and 4.14–739.89 µM; 0.01– > 8.02 µM and 0.09–72.18 µM, respectively, against promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes). The analogue, APC12 was the most active, was 4–10 fold more effective than the parent Milt molecule (APC16), irrespective of the strain’s sensitivity to antimony. Intravenous administration of 40 mg/kg APC12 to L. donovani infected BALB/c mice reduced liver and spleen parasite burdens by 60 ± 11% and 60 ± 19%, respectively, while oral administration reduced parasite load in the bone marrow by 54 ± 34%. These studies confirm that it is possible to alter the Milt structure and produce more active anti-leishmanial compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humera Ahmed
- Institute of Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, University of the West of Scotland School of Science and Sport High Street Paisley, Scotland PA1 2BE, UK;
| | - Katharine C. Carter
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde 121 Cathedral Street Glasgow, Scotland G4 ONR, UK;
| | - Roderick A.M. Williams
- Institute of Biomedical and Environmental Health Research, University of the West of Scotland School of Science and Sport High Street Paisley, Scotland PA1 2BE, UK;
- Correspondence:
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9
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Drug Discovery against Acanthamoeba Infections: Present Knowledge and Unmet Needs. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9050405. [PMID: 32456110 PMCID: PMC7281112 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9050405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Although major strides have been made in developing and testing various anti-acanthamoebic drugs, recurrent infections, inadequate treatment outcomes, health complications, and side effects associated with the use of currently available drugs necessitate the development of more effective and safe therapeutic regimens. For any new anti-acanthamoebic drugs to be more effective, they must have either superior potency and safety or at least comparable potency and an improved safety profile compared to the existing drugs. The development of the so-called 'next-generation' anti-acanthamoebic agents to address this challenge is an active area of research. Here, we review the current status of anti-acanthamoebic drugs and discuss recent progress in identifying novel pharmacological targets and new approaches, such as drug repurposing, development of small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based therapies and testing natural products and their derivatives. Some of the discussed approaches have the potential to change the therapeutic landscape of Acanthamoeba infections.
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