Bitumen from the Dead Sea in Early Iron Age Nubia

Biomolecular characterization of 3500-year-old ancient Egyptian mummification balms from the Valley of the Kings

Ancient Egyptian mummification was practiced for nearly 4000 years as a key feature of some of the most complex mortuary practices documented in the archaeological record. Embalming, the preservation of the body and organs of the deceased for the afterlife, was a central component of the Egyptian mummification process. Here, we combine GC-MS, HT-GC-MS, and LC-MS/MS analyses to examine mummification balms excavated more than a century ago by Howard Carter from Tomb KV42 in the Valley of the Kings. Balm residues were scraped from now empty canopic jars that once contained the mummified organs of the noble lady Senetnay, dating to the 18th dynasty, ca. 1450 BCE. Our analysis revealed balms consisting of beeswax, plant oil, fats, bitumen, Pinaceae resins, a balsamic substance, and dammar or Pistacia tree resin. These are the richest, most complex balms yet identified for this early time period and they shed light on balm ingredients for which there is limited information in Egyptian textual sources. They highlight both the exceptional status of Senetnay and the myriad trade connections of the Egyptians in the 2nd millennium BCE. They further illustrate the excellent preservation possible even for organic remains long removed from their original archaeological context.

Reshaping Egyptian funerary ritual in colonized Nubia? Organic characterization of unguents from mortuary contexts of the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1070 BCE)

Samples taken from the canopic jars of Djehutyhotep, chief of Tehkhet (Debeira), Lower Nubia, and local versions of Egyptian canopic jars from Sai, Upper Nubia, suggest that the materials used for mortuary ritual unguents in Nubia may have differed from those used in Egypt. Nubian samples consisted of plant gum and bitumen, whereas those from Egypt conformed to the standardizing black resinous liquid recipe used for mummification and other funerary rituals. However, there may be time frame issues to be considered as most samples analyzed from Egypt date to later periods. A standard black funerary liquid was used at Amara West, Upper Nubia, probably poured over a wrapped body, which might suggest that the gum and bitumen mixture was reserved for filling canopic jars, perhaps indicating that the use of canopic jars in Nubia differed from their use in Egypt. Evidence from the canopic jars of Djehutyhotep, local versions of canopic jars from Sai, and the sample from Amara West also indicate a source of bitumen that was not the Dead Sea, which was the main (although not only) source used in Egypt. The new results from the analysis of the Djehutyhotep canopic jars and previously published results from Sai point towards alternative ritual practices associated with local conceptions and uses of canopic jars in colonized Nubia. These samples and data from Amara West further reveal that the bitumen used in mortuary contexts in Nubia originated elsewhere than bitumen used in Egypt, which might have implications for our understanding of colonized Nubia as part of other trade networks independently from Egypt.

Unlocking the organic residues preserved in the corrosion from the Pewsey Hoard vessels

The characterization of archaeological metal corrosion has traditionally been limited to the identification of inorganic compounds usually by X-ray diffraction (XRD), thought to result from the interaction between the metal object and the deposition environment. The discovery of a hoard of Late Roman copper-alloy vessels in Wiltshire, UK presented an unique opportunity to adopt a multi-analytical approach to characterize corrosion combining XRD with Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and gas chromatography with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry using a thermal separation probe (GC-QTOF-MS with TSP). This approach revealed organic compounds potentially historical preserved within crystalline inorganic matrices. It has been known for some time that ceramics can harbour organic residues, which provide crucial evidence about the use of these vessels in the past. Our results confirms that similar residues appear to survive in metal corrosion thus extending the potential for identification of biomaterials used in the past.

Multi-Scale Characterization of Unusual Green and Blue Pigments from the Pharaonic Town of Amara West, Nubia

Pigments from paint palettes and a grindstone excavated from the pharaonic town of Amara West (c. 1300–1050 BCE), which lies between the Second and Third Cataracts of the Nile, were examined using polarized light microscopy, attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Most of the pigments were consistent with the typical ancient Egyptian palette, but the greens and some blues were unusual. Two types of green pigment were identified, chlorite (varieties clinochlore and penninite) and copper chloride hydroxide (atacamite type). The former constitutes a type of green earth which has only rarely been identified in pharaonic Egyptian contexts and may be more widespread than is currently reported. The majority of the blue pigment samples were Egyptian blue, but some were found to be a blue earth, the main component of which being sodic amphibole riebeckite. The use of this mineral as a pigment has not previously been reported in any Nile Valley context. These results prompt questions around local and potentially indigenous practices within an ancient colonial context, and highlight avenues for future research.

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry with complementary ionization methods in the study of 5000-year-old mummy

RATIONALE

Mummification is one of the defining customs of ancient Egypt. The nuances of the embalming procedure and the composition of the embalming mixtures have attracted the attention of scientists and laypeople for a long time. Modern analytical tools make mummy studies more efficient.

METHODS

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (GCxGC/HRMS) with complementary ionization methods (electron ionization, positive chemical ionization, and electron capture negative ionization [ECNI]) with a Pegasus GC-HRT+4D instrument was used to identify embalming components in the mummy from the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts acquired in 1913 in London at the de Rustafjaell sale. The mummy dates back to the late Predynastic period (direct accelerator mass spectrometry-dating 3356-3098 bc), being one of the oldest in the world.

RESULTS

The results showed the complexity of the embalming mixtures that were already in use 5000 years ago. Several hundred organic compounds were identified in the mummy samples. Various types of hydrocarbons (triterpanes, steranes, isoprenoid, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) prove the presence of petroleum products. Iodinated compounds detected using ECNI define oils of marine origin, whereas esters of palmitic acid indicate the use of beeswax. The nature of the discovered components of conifer tar proves that the preliminary processing of conifer resins involved heating. GCxGC/HRMS also allowed a number of modern contaminants (phthalates, organophosphates, and even DDT) to be identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Application of a powerful GCxGC/HRMS technique with complementary ionization methods allowed significant widening of the range of organic compounds used for mummification that could be identified. The complexity of the embalming mixtures supports the hypothesis of the high social status of the child made on the basis of the preliminary study of the mummy.

Molecular analysis of black coatings and anointing fluids from ancient Egyptian coffins, mummy cases, and funerary objects

Previous studies of ritual black coatings on coffins from ancient Egypt have taken single small samples from objects of wide-ranging time periods and have conflated different types of application. This study takes 100 samples of black ritual liquids identified by type of application and precisely located on the objects, to allow the results to be fully contextualized within the wider discipline. It shows that black coatings on coffins were made using a remarkably consistent selection of natural products. The molecules identified in these black coatings overlap with those used in Egyptian mummification balms, which may suggest a link among separate applications: preparation of the body for burial, decoration of the coffin, and rites performed during the funeral.

Black organic coatings and ritual deposits on ancient Egyptian coffins and cartonnage cases are important and understudied sources of evidence about the rituals of funerary practice. Sometimes, the coatings were applied extensively over the surface of the coffin, resembling paint; in other cases, they were poured over the mummy case or wrapped body, presumably as part of a funerary ritual. For this study, multiple samples of black coatings and ritual liquids were taken from 20 Egyptian funerary items dating to a specific time period (c. 943 to 716 BC). Multiple sampling from each object enabled several comparisons to be made: the variability of the black coating within one application, the variability between two applications on one object, and the variability from object to object. All samples were analyzed for lipids using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and 51 samples from across the 20 items were further analyzed for the presence of bitumen using solid phase separation followed by selected ion monitoring GC-MS. The majority of the black substances were found to comprise a complex mixture of organic materials, including bitumen from the Dead Sea, conifer resin, and Pistacia resin, providing evidence for a continuation in international trade between Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean after the Late Bronze Age. Both the coating and the anointing liquid are very similar to mummification balms, pointing to parallels with Egyptian embalming rituals and raising questions about the practical aspects of Egyptian funerary practice.

Experimental study of non-oxidized and oxidized bitumen obtained from heavy oil

Heavy oil and vacuum residue were used to obtain road bitumen BND 50/70 using two different methods of steam distillation at 323–362 °C and by oxidation, a method using packed column at temperature of 211–220 °C. The obtained residues using two methods steam distillation and oxidation are known as non-oxidized bitumen and oxidized bitumen, respectively. The products were evaluated using different standards including GOST 33133-2014, GOST 22245-90, and ASTM D5. The results showed that the yield of oxidized bitumen reached a maximal rate of 89.59% wt., while that of non-oxidized bitumen is 55% wt. The softening point of oxidized bitumen is 49–57 °C compared to non-oxidized bitumen (46–49 °C). Remarkably, the previous softening point and penetrability of 47–71 points of oxidized bitumen are consistent with norms to BND 50/70 bitumen, according standard. The non-oxidized bitumen has a relatively low softening point and a higher penetration value of 71–275, which refers to BND 200/300 bitumen. Comparatively, the use of a packed column is beneficial than the steam distillation, due to high capability of the nozzles to strengthens contact between feedstock and compressed air in the reaction zone and decreases the reaction time to 4.15 h.

Nondestructive Analysis of Mummification Balms in Ancient Egypt Based on EPR of Vanadyl and Organic Radical Markers of Bitumen

The black matter employed in the funeral context by ancient Egyptians is a complex mixture of plant-based compounds with variable amounts of bitumen. Asphaltene, the most resistant component of bitumen, contains vanadyl porphyrins and carbonaceous radicals, which can be used as paramagnetic probes to investigate embalming materials without sample preparation. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) at the X-band, combining in-phase and out-of-phase detection schemes, provides new information in a nondestructive way about the presence, the origin, and the evolution of bitumen in these complex materials. It is found that the relative EPR intensity of radicals and vanadyl porphyrins is sensitive to the origin of the bitumen. The presence of nonporphyrinic vanadyl complexes in historical samples is likely due to the complexation of VO²⁺ ions by carboxylic functions at the interface between bitumen and other biological components of the embalming matter. The absence of such oxygenated vanadyl complex in natural bitumen and in one case of historical human mummy acquired by a museum in the 19th century reveals a possible, nondocumented, ancient restoration of this mummy by pure bitumen. The linear correlation between in-phase and out-of-phase EPR intensities of radicals and vanadyl porphyrins in balms and in natural bitumen reveals a nanostructuration of radicals and vanadyl porphyrin complexes, which was not affected by the preparation of the balm. This points to the remarkable chemical stability of paramagnetic probes in historical bitumen in ancient Egypt.